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General Library System
University of Wisconsin • Madison
728 State Street
Madison, Wl 53706-1494
U.S.*

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ENCYCLOPAEDIA AMERICANA.

•A

POPULAR BICnONARY

ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE, HISTORY, POLITICS, AND

BIOGRAPHY,

BBOUGHT DOWN TO THE PRESENT TIME;

nrCLUDINO

A COPIOUS COLLECTION OF ORIGINAL ARTiCLES

AMERICAN BIOGRAPHY;

THE BASIS OF THE SEVENTH EDITION OF , THE GERMAW

FBANCIS LIEBEB, '%'1^

A88I8TBD BY <^^ A^

E. WIGGLESWORTH AND T. G. BRADFORD. "t^^^

Voi.vin.

MBW EDITION.

DESILVEB, THOMAS, & CO.
Ha 947, MARKET STREET.

1886.

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BA8TERN DISTKIGT OF PfiMNSrLVANIA, lowA

Ba IT KKMXMsmKD} that on the tenth day of Aof ust, in the fifty-fourth ^ar of the Independonoe of Um
United States of America, A. D. 1829^ Carey, Lea 6c Carey, of the said district, have depoaitad in this oiBo*
the title of a book, the right whereof they claim as proprietors, in the words foIkTwing, to wit :

" Encyclopedia Ajnericana. A Popular Dictionary of Arts, Skstencep, Literature, Histoid, Polities and
Biography, brought mwn to the prescMt Time ; including a eoplons Collection of Original Articles in AmKieaji
Biography ; on the Basis of the seventh Edition ot iho German CoDversations-Loxicoo. Edited by Francis Bnber,
assisted by E. Wiggleeworth."

In conformity to the act of the Congress of the United Statee, entitled, *' An Act for the encoumgement of
learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts and books to the authors and propricHors of such copies
during the times therein mentioned ;" and also U) the act, entitled, " An Act supplementary to an act. entitled,
* An Act for the enyouragement of learninj^, by securing the copies of maps, charts and books to the author*
and propnetors of such copies during the times therein mentioned,* and extending the benefits thereof to tb»
arts of designing, engraving and etching historical and other prints."

D. CALDWELL,
CUrk of tk9 Eatttm Dislrkuf PmHtjfiiMmm:

General Ubrary System

M|dlson, Wl 53706.14&4 i

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557T

&8G3G73'

ENCYCLOPEDIA AMERICANA.

Lii5XJiCS. (See LinnL)

LiA^E, Charles, but more generally des-
ignated by his Latiiuzed name, Lirmaug^
the mo8t celebrated natmnlist of his age,
was a native of Sweden. He was the son
of a ckmmaBj and was bom May 13,
old style, 1707, at RcBsbult, in the province
of Smaland. His fiither was fond of sar-
dening, and his little domain was stocKed
with plants not commonly cultivated— a
circumstance to which the prevfdling taste
of the son may be fiurly attributed. He
was sent to the grammar-Bchool, and af-
terwards to the gymnasium of Wexio, to
be educated for the ministiv ; but, as he
didiked the studies of the school, and pre-
ferred to collect plants and catch butter-
flies, he remained behind his fellow-pupils
in Latin and Greek, and the teachers de-
clared to his father that he was only fit
for a mechanic. The father sent him to a
shoemaker; but the physician Rothmann,
having discovered talents in the boy, in-
duced his parents to let him study. As
botany afforded him no prospect of a
support, Linn6 was obliged to study medi-
cine. In 1727, he entered at the univer-
sity of Lund in Scania, whence he re-
moved, the foUowing year, to Upsal.
During his early residence there, the nar-
rowness of his father's circumstances ex-
posed him to great difficulties, from which
he was relieved by the patronage of Cel-
sius, the theological professor,, an eminent
naturalist, who had become acquainted
with him in th^ botanical garden at Upsal,
and through whose xecommendation he
obcained some private pupils. He also
fbraied a friendship with Artedi, a med-
ical student like himself, devoted to the
cultivation of natural history. He now, in
Us 24th year^coDceived the idea of a new

arrangement of plants, or the sexual sys-
tem of botany, relative to which he wrote
a memoir, which was shown to Rudbeck,
the botanical professor, who was so struck
with its ingenuity, that he received the
author into his house, as tutor to his sons,
and made him his assistant in the office of
delivering lecture& Forty years before,
Rudbeck had made a journey to Lapland,
which excited the cunosity of the learned.
A new joumev was now concluded upon,
and, in 1733, Linn6 was sent, by the acad-
emy of sciences at Upsal, to make a tour
through Lapland, from which he returned
towards the close of the year. Fifty
Swedish dollars were thought sufficient
by Linn^ to defray his expenses, and with
this small sum he made a journey of more
tlian 3500 miles, unaccompanied. In
1733, he visited (he mining district around
Fahlun, and gave lectures on mineralogy,
having formed a system of that science,
aflenvards published in his S^stemaJVatU'
r(B, While he was thus adding to his repu-
tation at Upsal, he became involved in a
violent quarrel with the medical professor,
Nicholas Rosen, who seeinl to have acted
with a great deal of illiberality, and found
means to prevent Linn^ from continuing
his private lectures. He therefore engaged
in a scientific tour through the province
of DalecarHa, and remained for some
time* at Fahlun, lecturing and practis-
ing medicine with cozisiderable suc-
cess. He affain went to Lapland on a
mineraloeic«u tour, with seven young men ;
and, in 1735, pubUshed a complete Flora
of this country — a classical work. In the
same year, he went to the university of
Harderwyck,in Holland, and took the de-
gree of M. D. He then visited Leyden,
where the first sketch of his l^ifHema Sh^

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UNNE-LINSEED OIL.

r<B was printed in the ibim of tables, fiOiiiff
12 Iblio PW8> He became acquainted
with John Frederic Gronoyiua, Boeriiaave,
and John Bunnan of AmBterdam ; and he
then publiahed a work, entitled ISmda-
mania Bakadca, exhibiting the basis of his
botanical system. Mr. Clifford, a rich
merchant of Amsterdam, made him su-
perintendent of his garden at Hartecamp.
near Haerlem, rich in curious exotics, or
which Linn^ drew up a sjrstematic cata-
logue. In 1736, he made a visit to Eng-
land. He returned to Holland with many
new plants for Mr. Clifibrd^s garden, bis
descnption of which, entided Horlua Cl^-
forUanut, with 37 plates, was now publish-
ed in a most splendid form. He also pub-
lished the first edition of his Genera
Planktrum. In 1738, he made an excur-
sion to Paris, and, towuxls the end of
that year, returned to his native country,
and setded as a physician at Stockholm.
At first, he experienced neglect ; but,
through the ioiuence of count Tessin, he
WBB appointed physician to the navy, and
had a salary for giving public lectures on
botany in the summer, and on mineralogy
in the winter. The establishment of the
royal academy of Stockholm, of which he
was one of the first members, contributed
to the advancement of his reputation, by
the opportunities which it afforded for the
display of his abilities. In 1741, he suc-
ceeded Roberg in the professorship of
medicine at Upsal, to which was added
the superintendence of the botanic garden,
to the new arrangement and augmentation
of which he devoted much of his dmd
and attention. In 174$, appeared his
FVtra Suecica, and the next year his cata-
logue of Swedish animals, entided Fauna
Suedca, He was elected to the post of
secretarv of the academy of sciences at
UpsaL In 1746, an honorary medal of him
was struck at the expense of some noble-
men ; and, i% 1747, he wna nominated
royal archiater. Through his influence,
many young namndists were sent to ex-
plore various countries ; and to his zeal in
the cause of science we owe the discove-
ries in natural history made by Kalm, Os-
beck, Haaselquist and Loefling. He was
employed by the queen of Sweden to de-
scribe her museum at Drotmingholm,
when he made a new scientific arrange-
- ment of the sheik contained in it About
1751, he published his PkUosopMa Bokmr
ico, and, in 1753, his Species Planiarun^
containing a description of every known
plant, ananffed according to the sexual
syacem. This woric of Linn6, which Hal-
ler terms his Mcuimum Ojptu d JEUmum,

i^ipeared oriyinaUy in two yoluitfBa^ 8va ;
but the edition published by WHldenow
at Berlin, 1799—1810, is extended to ten
volumes. In 1753, this great natunJiat
vna created a knight of the polar star— an
honor never before bestowea on a literary
man. In 1761, he was elevated to the
rank of nobility. Literary honors were
also conferred on him by scientific socie-
ties in foreign countries. In 1768, he com-
pleted the plan of his SyHema Natwrtt^
which, through successive editions, had
been enlar^d to three octavo volumes.
Linn^ acquired a moderate degree of op-
ulence, sufiicient to enable him to pur-
chase an estate and mansion' at Hammar-
by, near Upsal, where he chiefhr resided
during the last 15 years of his life. There
he had a museum of natural history, on
which he gave lectures, and to which he
was constantiy making additions, - from
the contributions of travellers and men of
science in various parts of the worid.
His h^fdth, during a great part of bis Hfe,
enabled him to pursue his researches with
vigor and activity ; but in May, 1774, he
had an apoplectic attack, wmch obliged
him to relinquish the most laborious part
of his professorial duties, and close his
literary labors. A second attack occurred
in 1776, and he afterwards experienced a
third ; but his death did not take place
till January 11, 1778. Berades his works
on natural history, he published a classi-
fied Materia Medico, and a systematie
treatise on nosology, entided Genera Mor"
hornnL Few men in the history of sci-
ence have shown such boldness, zeal,
activity and sagacity as Linn^ : natural
science is under unspeakable obligations
to him, though the different systems es-
tablished by him may be superseded by
more perfect one& Charles AlV, king of
Sweden, in 1819, ordered a monument to
be erected to him in his native place.
By his wife, the daughter of a physician
at Fahlun, he had a son and four dauj^h-
ters. The former, Charles von Linn^ jun.
was joint-professor of botany, and afier-
vrards professor of medicine at Upsal.
He yrss well acquainted with science, but
distinguished himself by no discoveries
of importance. On his death, without
issue,, in 1783, the fiunily became extinct
— Elizdbeih Christina van Linn^, one of
the dauffhtera of the great naturalist,
studied botany, and became known by
her discovery of the luminous proper^
of the flower of the trop<Bolum, of which
an account was communicated to the
academy of Stockholm.
LmsEXD Oil, (See Itax.)

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LINT— UON.

Lorr, ki surgery, is the wrapiiigB of
tine finen, used by eurgecniB in dTeflaing
ifounds. It 18 made into yuiouB forma,
which haTB different namea, according to
the difference of the figure& Lint, made
up in an oval or orbiciuar form, is called a
pledgU; if in a cylindrical form, or in
shape of a date or olive stone, it is called a
ddmf. These difierent forms of lint are
required fi>r many purposes ; as, 1. to
stop blood in fresh wounds, bv filling them
up before the appticadon of a bandace;
though, if scraped lint be not at han<^ a
fuece of fine linen may be torn into small
rags, and iq>plied in the same manner:
in very laive hemonhaffes, the lint or
rags should be first dipped in some styptic
fiquor, as alcohol, or oil of turpentme,
or ^winkled with some styptic powder:
2w to agglutinate or heal wounds ; to
which end Imt is veiy serviceable, if
spread with some digestive ointment,
bidsam, or vulueraiy liquor : 3. in
drying up wounds and ulcers, and
forwarding the formation of a cicatrix :
4. in keeping the lips of wounds at a
proper distance, that they may not hastily
unite before the bottom is well digested
and healed : 5. they are highly neces-
sary to preserve wounds from the injuries
of the au*. — Surgeons of former ages used
compreases of sponge, wool, feamers, or
cotton, linen bemg less plentiful than in
later times ; but lint is fiur preferable to all
these, and is^ at present, universally used.

LiNTz, capital of Upper Austria, on the
Danube, at the influx of the Traun, is
well built, with a bridge 400 paces long,
and has, exclusive of the garrison, a popu-
lation of 18,700 inhabitants ; houses, 1000.
Here is the largest woollen manufiictory
in Austria, in which fine carpets are made.
Much gunpowder is also manufactured
here. In 1/84, lintz was made a bishop's
see. In 1674, the lyceum was founded by
Leopold, and, in 1824, institutions for the
dear and dumb, and one for the blind,
were erected. The Northern Institute is
a college for the Catholics of the north of
Germany. Lon. 14° !& 45^' E. ; lat. 48^
18^54"N. ,

Linus ; the name of a celebrated mu-
sician of antiquity, to whom Diodorus
Siculus, quoting Dionysius of Mitylene,
attributes the introduction of verse and
music into Greece. He was a native of
Chalcis, and to him are ascribed a poem
on the exploits of Bacchus in India, a
treatise on mythology, the addition of a
fitrinff to the lyre then in use, and the in-
Yennon of melody and rhythm. Suidas
also joins in giving him credit for the last-

mentioned i mprove i a enti» and calls him
the first lyric poet A few fiagmenti of
poetry, under his name, are to be found
mStobKQs.

Lion {fdis Uo), The lion, like all
other catB^ is anned, in each jaw, with
six strong and exceedingly aharp cuttirig
teeth, two formidable canine, and six
others, occupying the usual place of the
molars^ but differing from these by termi-
nating in sharp protuberances. Besides
these, there is a small tooth, or tubercle,
on each side of the upper jaw, immediate-
ly posterior to all the others. The tongue
is covered with rough and elevated jMqm-
Utj with their points directed backwards.
The clawB^ which are five in number on
the fore feet, and four on the hinder, are
of great length, extremely powerful, and
much curvea ; like those of the other cats,
they are retractile within a sheath en-
closed in the skin covering the paws.
The lion is distinguished from his kindred
species by the uniformity of his color,
which is pale tawny above, becoming
somewhat lighter beneath, and never, ex-
cept while very youne, exhibiting any
markings ; and also by the long and flow-
ing mane of the old male, which, cover-
ing the whole head, extends backwards
over his ehoulders. Notwithstanding the
praises that have, from time immemorial,
been bestowed on this animal, for grateful
affection, daimdess courage, and merciful
forbearance, he is nothing more, in moral
and intellectual faculties, than a cat of im->
mense size and strength, and endowed
with all the guileful and treacherous qual<
ities of that treacherous tribe. His daunt-
less courage is a mere consciousness of
superiority over the animals by which he
is surrounded, and wholly disappears in
the neighborhood of man; his merciful
forbearance is nothing more than that he
never destroys more than satiates his hun-
ger or revenge, and that, when under the
dominion of man, he suffers his keeper to
approach him without injury. The lion
is only met with in the warmer reciony of
the old world, and more particularly of
Africa, in whose vast forests and ariil
deserts be reigns supreme and uncon-
trolled. He is met with, but rarely, in
parts of India, Arabia and Persia, but his
range in these countries is becoming very
limited. From Libya, whence the Romans
obtained so many, he has almost disap- .
peared ; and in classic Greece, where, we
are informed by AristoUo, he once ocdtf-
red, none are to be found. In America*
this species never occurred, its place being
supph^ by the puma. NaXttmliata h&v«

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UOM.

diflmd graadv m to the tengw i i y of this
ammaL BufSm stated it to oe mm 20 to
23 yean; but it far exooeds this, as the
one in the Tower of Loodon, which died
in 1760, lived in captivity above 70 years ;
and another died in the same place, at the
age of 63, The lioneaB brings fortfi from
three to four at a birth. The cube, when
first bom, are about the ^e of a small
pug dog, and continue to suck the mother
for about a year. At this time, their color
is a mixture of reddish and my, with a
number of brown bands. The mane of
the male begins to make its appearance
when the animal is about three to three
yean and a half old. The male attains
maturity in seven, and Ibe female in six
yean. The strength of the lion is pro-
di^oiifl, a single stroke with his paw
bemg sufficient to destroy most animals.
The bone of the fore leg is remarkably
fitted to sustain the great muscular strain
flo powerful an exertion occasions. Its
texture is so compact, that it will strike
fire with steel. Tlie luzking-place of the
lion is generally chosen near a spring, or
by the side of a river, where he has an
opportunity of surprising such animals as
resort to the water to quench their thirst
Here he lies in wait, crouched in some
thicket, till his prev approaches, and then,
with a prodigious leap, seizes it at the first
bound; if, however, unsuccessfbl in this,
he immediately retires to wait another
opportunity. In the night, more particu-
larly, the Uon prowls abroad in search of
his prey, the conformation of his eyes
beinff, like those of the common cat, well
fitted for seeing in a dim light. The roar
of the lion is loud and temfic, especially
when heard in the solitary wilds he m-
habits: this roar is his natural voice ; for,
when enraged, he utten a short and sud-
denly-repeated cry, whilst the roar is a
prolonged effort, a kind of deep-toned
grumDiDg, mix^ with a sharp, vibrating
noise. It has been usually stated, that the
lion had constant and stated times for
roaring, especially when in captivity ; but
this has been shown to be erroneous in
some degree. It appears, however, that,
in summer time, and especially before at-
mospheric changes, he uniformly com-
mences about dawn ; at no other time is
there any regularity in his roar. When
enraged, his cry is stiU more appalling
than tus roar ; he then beats his sides with
his tiul, agitates his mane, moves the skin
of his mce and his shaggy eyebrows,
thrusts out his tongue, and protrudes his
dreadful claws. The lion requires about
15 pounds of raw fles^ a day; he drinks

ofien, lapping like a dog; but in this pro-
oees his tongue is bent downward: bis
breath is very offensive, and the odor of
his urine insupportable. There is some
variation, in the lions of different countries
in external appearance, though, in essen-
tial particulare, their habits are identical
The Aaatic varietjr seldom attains an
equal size with the Cape lion ; its color is
a more uniform and pale vellow, and its
mane fuller and more complete, and being,
moreover, furnished vrith a peculiar i^
pendage of long hairs, which, commenc-
mg beneath the neck, occupy the whole
of the middle line of the body beneatii.
Even the Cape lion presents two varieties^
known as the pde and the black, distin-
guished, as their appellations imply, by
me lighter or darker color of their coats.
The latter of these is tiie larrcr and more
ferocious of the two. The Barbary lion
has the same full mane as the Asiatic, but
exceeds him in size. The number of
lions, as has been observed, has greatiy
diminished, judging fix)m the multitudes
spoken of by ancient writers, and those
carried to Rome. Thus Sylla the dictator
exhibited, during iiis pretorship, 100 of
these animals ; and Pompey presented 600
in the circus. Lion-fights were common
under the consulate, and during the em-
pire. Adrian, it is said, oflen caused 100
to be destrc^ed at one exhibition; and
Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius
were equally prodigal in gratifying the
people. At the cape of Good Hope, lions
are hunted, not only for the purpose of
extermination, but also for their skins.
In the day time, and in 'an open country,
from 10 to 16 dogs will easily overcome a
lion of the largest size; nor does there
appear to be any necessity that the do^
should be very large ; as he is less swift
than these anunals, they readily overtake
him, on which the lion turns round, and
waits for the attack, shaking his mane,
and roaring in a short and sharp tone, -or
sits down on his haunches to race thenu
The does then surround him, and, simul-
taneously rushing upon him, subdue him
by their united efforts, thouffb not before
he has destroyed several of them. But
the mode of destroyinff them, usual among
the Bushmen, is by snooting them, either
with fire-arms or poisoned arrows. The
inhabitants know that the lion generally
kills and devoura his prey at sunrise and
sunset On this account, therefore, when
they intend to hunt them, they notice
where the antelopes are feeding at day-
break : if they perceive that these animals
aie alarmed, they conclude that they have

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LION— IIPOGRAMMATIC COMPOSITIONS.

been ittackBd liy a fion. Maiking the
•pot whence the alarm took place, about
mid-day, when the bob is T617 powerful,
and the object of their attack aalee^ they
oevefuUy examine the ground, and, if they
find hixn, diiey lodge a bullet or poiaonea
aiTow in him. Sometimes, however, he
is fiuriy brought to bay in the day time,
by the hunter, as the following account
fifom Pring^e testifies. Afler his retreat is
ibund, **the apf)roved plan is to torment
him with dogs till he abandons his covert,
and stands at bay in the open plain. The
whole band of hunters tnen march for-
ward together, and fire deliberately, one
by one. If he does not speedily fall, but
crows angiy, and turns upon his enemiee^
uev must then stand close in a circle,
and tiim their hones' rear outwaid, some
holding them &st by the bridles, while the
odiers kneel to take a steady aim at the
Ikm as he approaches, sometimes up to
the Teiy horses' heels, crouching eveiy
now and then, as if to measure the
distance and strength of his enemies.
This is the moment to shoot him fairly in
the forehead, or some other mortal part.
If they continue to wound him ineffectu-
ally, nil he becomes furious and desperate,
or if the horses, staitled by his teirific
Ttmr^ grow fiantic with terror, and burst
loose, the business becomes rather serious,
and may end in mischief^ especially if all
the party are not men of courage, coolness
md experience." Very full' accounts of
die lion and his habits are to be found in
die trayels of Sparmann, Barlow, Levail-
bnt, Burchell, &c^ in Southern Africa,
and also in the Library of Entertaining
Knowledge, and the Tower Menagerie,
from which the above account has oeen
condensed.

Lion's Gitlp. This is the proper
qielling of the gulf generaUy called Gvlf
w" LyonB. The name is derived from
fim, on account of the fierceness of the
gales, at some seasons, in this gulf The
proper mode of writing it in French is
GioUt du Lion. (See I^ofu, Gviyof.)

Lioys Share ; the whole, or a dispro-
poitionate share of the advantages of a
contract, claimed by one of the parties^
and supported by the right of die strong-
est The phrase is derived from a &ble
of .£sopL

LiPAiro, CouifTEss OF (Caroline An-
nnnziada) ; the widow of Murat (q. v.),
and the sister of Napoleon. She hi-
came grsnd-duchess of Berg, and queen
of Naples. She was bom March 26^
178S2L

LiPABi ; a cluster of vDlcanio islands

in the Meditenanean, which take dieir
name from the principal one of the group,
about S4 miles fifom the north coast of
Sicily. Lon. 15° Id" E. ; lat 38^ 34/ £. ,
popuJation, about 20,000. These islands
were called, by the ancients, JEolUtf Vid-
canuB, and Innda^ lAparaanimy and feu;&-
ed to be the residence of JEk>lus and Vul-
can. lAfari^ the laigest, is populous and
well cultivated, producing great quantities
of com and firmt, ea)ecially figs and rair
ons ; it likevrise produces alum, sulphur,
nitre and cinnabar. It is about 15 miles
in circumference; the air is healthy, and
the inhabitants industrious and ffood sea-
men. On the eastern coast is situated a
town of the same name. In this island
were foraieriy pitB^ which emitted fire and
smoke, but liave long ceased to do either.
Population, 15,000; square miles, 100.
The other islands are SuomboU, Panaris,
Vulcano, Salini, Alicudi and Felicudi, with
two or three smaller ones. The volcanic
eruptions^ formerly frequent in the island
of Lipari, ceased in the sixth century, but
the whole island is composed of pumice-
stone, lava, volcanic glass, and black sand ;
and the warm baths, and heated vanora
of the Stoves (excavations which emit hot,
sulphureous exhalations), prove the activity
of the subterranean fires. The celebrated
crater of Vulcano was viated by general
Cockbum in 1812 (Voyage to Cadiz) ; the
volcano is probably only slumbering, and
not extinct Stromboli js at present the
most remarkable of the islands ; its fires
are in unremitting activity, the emptions
taking place at regular intervals, varying
fi^m three to ei^t minutes. (See the
works of Dolomieu, Spallanzani, Bry-
done, &c)

L1PIN8K1, Charles, one of the greatest
violinists, was bom in 1790, at Radeyn,
Poland. His father mve bhn his first in-
struction in music. In 1810, he was ap-
pointed director of music at the German
theatre in Lember^, and save up the vio-
loncello, till then his chief instmment, and
devoted himself more to the violin. In
1814, he was so attracted by Spohr's
playing, that he resigned his place, m or-
der to have leisure for practising that
artist's manner. He remained m his
native country until 1817, when he Went
to Italy to hear the celebrated Paganini
f q. V.) In Piacenza, he p]a3red wiui him
in a concert Since that time, he has
travelled in Rusaa, Germany and France.
His style inclines to the elevated.

LlPOGRABOfATIC COUPOSITIONS ; thoSS

in which certain letters are purposely
left out Thus Lope de Vega wrote a

Digitized by VjOOQIC

UPOGRAMBIATIG COMPOSITIONS-LB'SIUB.

noveOa without I or a, Kotzebue wrote
one without r. The word is derived from
the Greek Xemuv (signifying to omtt^ and
used in many compound words), and
ypanfia (letter).

LiFPE. The ancient principality of
Lippe is, at present, divided between two
reigning houses: 1. Lippe-Detmold con-
tains about 490 square miles, with 71^300
inhabitants. Detmold, with 2700 inhab-
itants, is the capital. Public revenue,
490,000 guilders. The prince furnishes a
contingent of 600 men to the German
confederacy. The constitution granted
by the mother of the present prince to the
country is sftll suspended, because the no-
bility will not allow the peasants to be
represented. 2. Schauenburg-Lippe. The
dominions of the prince orLip^-Biick-
eburg-Schauenbure contain 212 square
miles, with 25,500 inhabitants ; revenue,
215,0(X) guilders; contingent to the Ger-
manic confederation, 2£) men. B(icke-
burg, the capita), is on the river Au. In
1810, the pnnce abolished the last traces
of bondage, and, Jan. 15, 1816, established
a constitution.

Lippi. There were three Florentine
artists of this name. Of these, the eldest,
Ihmeesco FUippo, bom in 1421, and sur-
named the (My hod taken the vows as a
Carmelite monk, but afterwards abandon-
ed the church, and underwent many vi-
cissitudes of fortune. Oh one occasion,
he fell into the hands of a Barbery corsair,
who sold him to slavery in Africa. The
successful exertion of his talents, upon the
portrait of his purchaser, was rewarded
by his restoration to liberty. On his re-
turn to Italy, he was received into the ser-
vice of the grand-duke of Florence. His
death took place in 1488 ; and, although
he was then 67, it is said to have been the
result of an intrigue, with a female of a re-
spectable family, poison being employed
by her relatives for his destruction. — He
left one son, FHippo^ also a painter of
considerable reputation, bom in 1460.
Many of his works are yet to be found in
tlie city of which he was a native. He
died in 1505. — Lorenzo^ the thb^ of the
name, descended of the same family, unit-
ed to considerable skill as a historical and
portrait painter the arts of poetry and mu-
fflc. He was bom in 1606, and is advan-
tageously known as the author of a bur-
lesque poem, entitled MalmantUe Racauia'
tato. Of this work there have been tnree
editions; two planted at Florence, in 1688
and 1731, the other, in 1768, at Paris. It ap-
peared originally under the fictitious name
of Zipo/i. His death took place in 1664.

Lipsins, Justus ; an a^te critic and er-
udite scholar of the nxteenth century, horn
at Overysche,in Brabant^ a village situated
between Brussels and Louvain, in Octo-
ber, 1547. Martinus Lipsius, the intimate
friend of Erasmus, was his uncle. His
genius developed itself very earlv, his
memory being considered wonderful. Be>
fore he had completed his ninth year, he
had written some miscellaneous poetry,
much above mediocrity. He was instmct-
ed at Bmssels, and, subsequently, in the
colleges of iGth, Cologne and Louvain.
He removed to Rome in his 20th vear,
and, having secured the patroiiage of car-
dinal Granvella, by dedicating to him his
treatise VarimvmLuiUmiumy was received
into Ins household, in the nominal capaci-
ty of secretary. With this distinguished
prelate he remained till 1569, sedulously
consulting the treasures of the Vatican,
and other principal libraries, especially
employing himself in the collation of rare
and ancient manuscripts. On his return
to the Netheriands, after a short time spent
at Louvain, he visited the capital of^ th«
German empire, and then accepted a pro-
fessorship in the university of Jena. Here
the fickleness of his disposition, and the
vacillatmg state of his opinions respecting
reli^ous matters, which eventually fixed
the imputation of imbecility on a charac-
ter in other respects estimable, first became
apparent He renounced the Romish
church, and became a Lutheran ; but,
quitting Jena, at length, with an avowed
intention of spending the remainder of his
life in retirement in his native country
he repaired to Overysche, and, soon after,
recanted his supposed errors, and became
reconciled to the see c^ Rome. In 1577,
however, he again removed to Leyden,
when he embraced the doctrines of Cal-
vin, and, during the 13 years which he
spent in that university, gave to the world
the most esteemed of his works. In 1 590,
he returned finally to Louvain, and once
more became a Catholic, and that of the
most bigoted description. Many tempt-
ing and honorable offers were made
him by various potentates, to engage him
in their service ; but he refused Siem all ;
and, at length, died at Louvain, in the
spring of 1606. Superstition led him, a
snort time l>efore his death, to dedicate a
silver pen, and his fur gown, to the virgin
Mary. His principal works are the Veaia
Lediones above-mentioned; an excellent
Commentary on the Works of Tacitus;
treatises De ConstanHa; Dt MUiHa Ro-
mana; De AmpkUheabris ; De Prommtta-
fume recta langvuB LaUrut ; De Cntu;

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LIPSIUS-LISBON.

DewiaBdigione; De BOiUdheeii ; Satira
Menwpaa; Satwriudia} and an Oration
on the Death of the Duke of Saxony.
The best edition (^them is that printed at
Antwerp^ in 1637.

LiquEUR (from the French) ; a palat-
able fpiriuious drink, composed or wa-
ter, alcohol, sugar, and some aromatic
inliiaon, extracted from fruits, seeds,
&c The great difference in the quali-
ties of the different liquevn is owing
principally to a variation in the propor-
tions of the sugar and alcohol. The
French distinguish three qualities : the
fiiBt are the ratafias, or simple liqueurs,
in which the sugar, the alcohol and the
aromatic substance are in small quantities:
such are the anise-water (q. v.), noyau,
the apricot, cheny, &c. ratafias. The
second are the oils, or the fine UquLCurs,
with moiC; saccharine and spirituous
matter ; ds the aniseUe, curagao, &C.,
which are those commonly found in the
cafis. The third are the creams, or su-
perfine It^uetir^, such as rosoglio,,maraS'
ddno, Dantzic water, &c. The same ar-
omatic infusion may, therefore, ^ve its
name to liquettrs of different quahties, in
which the materials are the same, but the
proportions different: thus one propor-
tion of ingredients gives eaurde-fwyau ; an-
other, crtme-de-noytat, &c.

LiQUIDAMBAR STrRACIFLVA, Or SwEET

Gum. This tree is widely diffused through
the U. States, from lat 43^ to Florida, and
along the shores of the gulf into the prov-
inces of Mexico. The leaves, which
somewhat resemble those of some maples,
are very regularly five-lobed, and the
lobes are serrated on the margin. The
flowers are inconspicuous. The fruit con-
sists of a sort of bur, supported on a long
pedicle, and is somewhat itoilar to that
of the button-wood, or plane-tree, but is
much less even, on the surface. It is
abundant every where throughout the
BOddle, Southern, and Western States,
and sometimes has a trunk ^ve feet in
diameter, with a proportional summit
Ihe usual diameter, however, is fh>m one
to three feet. The wood is compact, ca-
pable of receiving a fine polish, and has
oeen used for articles of furniture ; but,
for this purpose, it is inferior to either the
wild cherry or black walnut It is, how-
ever, employed for lining mahogany, for
bediteads, and for a variety of purposes in
die interior of houses, possessng great
rtrength, but requiring protection m>m the
weather. The bark, on being wounded,
Jields a small quantity of a fragrant redn.
TUs txee is, however, inferior, in useful

propertiei^ to many otfaen whicli infaafak
our forests.

Lii^uoBicE {g iyc yr hiia ) ; a genus of
leguminous plants^ containing eight spe-
cies, one of which is a native of Noith
America, and the othen are confined to
the northern and temperate parts of the
eastern continent They have pinnated
leaves, and small, blue, violet, or white
flowers, which are disposed in heads or
spikes, and are remarkable tor the sweet-
ness of the roots. The common hquorice
iG. glabra) grows wild in the south of
Europe, and is cultivated in many pkces,
even m England, for the sake of the root
which is much used in pharmacy, and
forms a considerable article of commerce.
More than 300 tons of the extract are man*
ufactured annually in Spain, a conodera-
ble portion of which is sent to London,
and employed in the brewing of porter.
It is often administered medieinaily, in
coughs and pulmonary affections, and the
aqueous infusion is exposed for sale in all
the European cities, as a refreshinff beve-
rage. A deep, light and sandy soilis best
adapted to its culture. The American
species (G, lepidota) inhabits the plains of
tne Missouri, from St Louis upwards, ex-
tending even to the borders of the Pacific,
but is not found in the Atiantic statea
LiRioDENDRON. (See Tulip-Tree.)
Lisbon (Lisboa), the chief city of
Portugal, and the residence of the court,
in the province of Estrcmadura, on the
right bank of the Tagus, which is here a
mile and a half in width, and not Tar firom
the mouth of the river, is built on three
hills, in a romantic countiT, and exhibits a
grand appearance fit>m the harbor. In-
cluding the suburbs Junqueira and Alcan-
tara, it is about five miles in length, and a
mile and a half in breadth. It contains
40 parish churches, 75 convents, and 100
chapel^ 44,000 houses, and, before 1807,
had 300,000 inhabitants, but, at present,
has not more than S00,000, among whom
are many foreigners, Negroes, Mulattoes,
Creoles, and 30,000 Galicians, who come
from Spanish Galicia, and serve as por-
ters and water carriers, and perform other
menial occupations. Tl^e town is open,
without walls or gates. The highest hill
only has a castie, now in ruins ; but the
harbor Is beautiful, capacious and safe,
and is defended by four strong forts
on the banks of the river (St Juliana, St
Bugio, the towejr of Belem, &c.). Many
of me streets are very unc^ven, on account
of the hilly ntuation of the city. The
finest are on the banks of the river.
There are no elegant private buildiDgil.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

USBON— LISLE.

The homes of the nobilinr are difldngujsh-
ed only by their size. The western part
has been beautifully rebuilt since the
dreadful earthquake (Nov. 1, 1755) which
destroyed half of the city, with the loss
of 30,000 lives,* the streets being straight,
and regularly laid out, with fine houses
and squares. The eastern part of the city,
which was not affected by me earthquake,
has preserved its gloomy aspect— crooked
streets and old-fashioned houses, six and
seven stories hiffh. Lisbon was for-
meriy known to be extremely filthy and
unsafe; but, at present, regulations have
been made to provide for the public secu-
rity, and the streets are well lighted.
Among the squares, the principal are
the PUifa do Commercio and the Rocio,
They are connected by handsome, wide,
straight streets. The former, on which
the royal palace, now in ruins, was situ-
ated, lies on the bank of the Tagus, at
the landing-place of the harbor, is on ob-
long square, of 615 paces in length and
550 in breadth, and is surrounded, on
three mdes, with fine buildings (the fourth
is open towards the river). In the centre
there is a bronze statue of king Joseph I.
The Rocio, where the autos dafi were for-
merly exhibited, is a regular oblong, 1800
feet in length and 14^ in width, with
the new paLsice of the inquisition on one
fflde. In this square 10 streets meet
Among the churches, tlie new church is
the finest, and is the most magnificent
building^ erected since the earthquake.
The patriarchal church, on an elevated
situation, whk;h affords a beautiful view,
is magnificent in its interior, and contains
rich treasures and many curiosities. The
patriarch, the head of the Portuguese
church, has a large annual income. The
aqueduct, about seven miles in length, is a
remarkable construction. The centre is
so high, that a ship of the line might pass
under it The water is carried over the
vaUey* of Alcantara, on 35 marble arches.
It withstood the force of the earthquake,
although the keystones sunk a few inches.
The St Joseph's hospital, where 16,000
sick, and the foundling hospital, where
1600 children, are annually received, de-

* The city ^lien contained aboat 150,000 inhab-
itants. The shock was instantly followed bv the
fall otevery church and convent, almost ail the
laiige pubhc buildings^ and more than one
fourth of the houses. In about two hours after
the shock, fires broke out in different quarters,
and raffed with sach violence, for the space of
neatly Uiree days, that the city was completely
desolated. The earthquake happened on a holy-
day, when the churches and convents were fall of
people, very few of whom escaped.

serve to be particulariy mentioned. Among
the literary institutions are the royal acad-
emy of sciences, the college of nobles, the
marine academy, with other seminaries, h.
botanical garden, three observatories, the
royal cabinet of natural ciuiosities, and
several public libraries, among which is
the royal library, containing §0,000 vol-
mnes. Lisbon is the seat of the supreme
authorities, and of the patriarch of rortu-
^, vrith a numerous clergy. The inhab-
itants have but few manufiictories: there
are not even mechanics enough to supply
the demands of the city. But Lisbon is
the centre of Portuguese commerce, which
extends to most of the countries of Eu-
rope, to the U. States, and to the Portu-
guese possessions in other parts of the
world. There are about $M0 Portuguese
and 130 foreign (principally Er;glish ) mer-
cantile houses. From 17d0 to 1800 ves-
sels arrive aimually at the port ( Jimquei-
ra). The beautiful environs of the, town
are embellished by a ^reat number
(6 — ^7000) coimtry seats (gutnto). In the
vicinity are Belem and the castles Rama-
Ihao and Quelus.

Lisle, or Lille (Flemish, jRj^eQ; a
large and strong city of France, formerly
the capital of French Flanders, and now
of the department of the North, situated on
the Deule, in a dead flat The Deule is
navigable, and is divided into several
branches, part of which supply the moats
or great ditches of the citadel and tO¥m.
The form of Lisle is an irregular oval ;
its length, fix>m north-west to south-east, is
nearly two miles ; its breadth, about three
quarters ; its circumference, between four
and Ave, exclusive of the earthen ram-
parts that surround the town, and which
are, in their turn, surrounded by a moat,
lisle presents an imposing appearance,
from its extent, its fortifications, its canals,
its squares, and its public buildings. Few
cities of France can vie with it in the
straiffhtness and width of its streets, the
regmarity of its buildings, and its general
air of neatness. Several convents have
survived the revolution ; the hospitals are
five, one very large. Lisle is a fortress of
the first rank. Its citadel, the masterpiece
of Vauban, is the first in Europe after that
of Turin. It is a mile in circuit, and is
surroimded by a double moat The
trade of lisle is extensive. Its manu&c-
tiures are of camlets, series, and other
woollen stufils, cotton, cahco, linen, alk»
velvet, lace, carpets, soap, starch, tobacco,
leather, ^lass and earthenware. The ori-
ffin of this town is ascribed by tradition to
Julius Cnsar. Lotus XIV took it fix»n

Digitized by VjOOQIC

USLE— LITCHFIELD.

11.

the Spuiiavds in 1667. It sumodered, in
1706, to the duke of Bfariboroush and
pinoe Eugene. At the peace of Utrecht,
It was restored to France. In 1792, it was
bombaided by the Austriana, who were
oblged to retire, with the loss of 20,000
men. In 181£s Louis XVIII spent one
day here, before fearing France. Popu-
la&n, 69,860 ; 18 mifes eatt of Toumay;
Ion. 3» 4^ E. ; lat 50P 37' iP N.

List ; the enclosed ground wherein
knights held their justs and tournaments ;
so ^ed because encircled with barriers
as with a Est. Some were double, one for
each cavalier, so that they could not ap-
proach nearer than a spear's length. Hence
to etUer the Usis is to engage in contest

Listei. ; a small square moulding,
serving to crown or accompany a larger,
and to sepamte the flutings m columns.

L'IsTEsso Tempo (BaUan) ; a phrase
implying that the movement before which
it m fik^ed is to be played in the same
time as &e previous movement

LiTAirT (from the Greek Acrovcfa, suppli-
cation, prayer| ; a form of prayer or song,
used <Hi occasions of public calamity, firet
introduced, according to Zonanis and Ni-
cephorus, by Proclus, about the year 446,
at Constantinople, in the rei^ of Theodo-
sius ; according to Paulus Diaconus, under
Jusdnian, at ^tioch, in consequence of
the following cireumstance: An earth-
quake, says the lesend, having driven the
people into the fields, a boy was suddenly
taken up into the air in thev presence ; but
was again let down unhurt, on the people
crying out .^rieeleejoft/ The boy related
that he h d heard the songs of the angels,
** Holy God ! Holy and Mighty, Holy and
Immortal I have mercy upon us !" and this
gave rise to the litany. This kind of
common prayer was, perhaps, not unusual
among the Jews, and the ISBth Psalm
seems to have been adapted to this pur-
pose, litanies afterwards became very
common, and every saint of the Roman
calendar has his litany. It must be own-
ed, that some of these are very unmom-
ing, enumerating all the names and mira-
cles attributed to the saiut, and, in this re-
spect, not unlike those prayers of the
Romans, which connsted mereljr of a
catalogue of the names of the deity ad-
dreoKci, against which St Paul gives a
particular warning. Litanies are found
m the old hvirm-lxK>ks of the Lutherans,
but are no bn^er used by German Prot-
esttntSL The Catholic litanies are distin-
fliished into die greater and less. The
ktter is said to luive been composed by
babop Bfamertofl^ of Vienne (in France),

in 446^ when that place was visited by re-
peated calamities ; the former by Qr»|^ry
the Great, during an inundation or tbie
Tiber, and a ragmff plague. This con-
sisted of a sonff of seven choin (hence
s^atiformis^ of clergy, monks, nuns, boys,
^Is, Roman citizens, and widows arid mar-
ried womeiu The litany probablyconsisted,
at first, of the words loirU deuony but was
gradually enlarged. The titany was annu-
ally sung on the diMfxj^pafumiim. At a later
period, the litany was not only addressed
to the Holy Trmity, but also, as we have
said, to the saints, and sung in processions.
This latter kind of litany of course was
omitted by the Protestants. The usual an-
swer of the people is, Ora pro nobis (pray
for us), if the litany is directed to the Vir-
fin or a saint ; or Libera noa (deliver us), if
It is addressed to the Deity. Indecent
parodies have often been made on lita-
nies, and sung in connexion with other
profane songs. In early times, instances
occur of this being done, even by monks.
(See the note to the article JWf, liasi of.)
The following parody is taken from the
Cavalier's Letame (1647):

From too much keapin^ an evil deconini.
From tbe manvfold Uneuons parliamtntorum.
From Oliver Cromwell, dux onmium mahnan,
Liberanoi.

See the Sacr<B lAtoxwt varuB (Antwer|^
1606), and Bingham's Origints Eccksias-
Hetty for a great varjety oflitanies. — ^That
this mmple form of prayer and response
has, at times, been of great advantage to
the people cannot be denied ; and, l)ecause
many htanies are poor, all ought not to be
condenmed. (See Liiiargy.)

Litchfield; a post-town, and capital
of Litchfield county, Connecticut ; 30 miles
^st of Hartford, 31 north-north-west of
New Haven, 329 from Washington ; Ion.
73° 37' W. ; lat. 4^ SO' N. ; population, in
1820, 4610 (for the population in 1830, see
United States) ; organized as a tctwn in
1721, and contains four large territorial
parishes. The principal villii«e is delight-
mlly situated on an elevated plain, afford-
ing extensive and beautiful prospecta It
was made a borough in 1818, and con-
tains a court-house, a jail, a female acad-
emy, a law school, a printing-ofiice, a
bank, and two houses of public worship, —
one for Ck>ngregationa1ists, and one for
Episcopalians, — and has some trade. In
the township, there are nine houses of
public worship, — ^four for Congregational-
ists, four for Episcopalians, and one for
Baptists. Itisagoodaffriculturaltown,aiid
contains numerous muls and manu&ctur-
ing establishments, cotton manuftctories,

Digitized by VjOOQIC

IJTCaBDPIELI)--LITEIlARY HISTORY.

in»i works, &c. Mount Tom, on the
western border of the township, is 700
feet high. There are four ponds in this
township, the lai^gest of which comprises
900 acres. There is a medicinal spring
within half a mile of the court-house.
The law school in this town is a priyate
institution, established in 1783, by judge
Reeve.^ In 1796, judge Gould was asso-
ciated with him. Since 1820, judge Gould
has lectured alone. The students, how-
erer, are weekly examined b^ another
ffendeman. The number of students,
from 1796 to 1827, both inclusive, was
730. The number has been somewhat
reduced, by the establishment of another
school in connexion with Yale coUese.
The students in this seminary smdy me
law by titles, in the order in which the
lectures are ^ven. The mode of instruc-
tion is by lecturing on the several titles of
the law in an established order. The
course of lectures occupies about 14 or 15
months. One lecture is given every day.
There are two vacations of ibur weeks
each ; one in May, the other in October.
The price of mition is at the rate of $100
ayeai^

Lit dx Justick was formerly a sol-
emn proceeding in France, in which the
king, with the princes of the blood royal,
the peers, and the officers of the crown,
state and court, proceeded to the parlia-
ment, and there, cdtdng upon the throne
(which, in the old French language, was
called lit, because it consisted of an un-
der cushion, a cushion for the back, and
two under the elbovra), caused those com-
mands and orders, which the parliamen^'
did not approve, to be remstered in his
presence. The parliament nad the right
of remonstrating, in behalf of the nation,
asainst the royal commands and edicts.
If the king, however, did not choose to
recede from hjs measures, he first issued
a written command {fdtns'de jussion) to
the parliament ; and if this was not obey-
ed, he held the lit de justice. The parlia-
ment was then, indeed, obliged to submit,
but it afterwards commonly made a po-
test against the proceeding. Louis aV
held such AUtde juBUct, in 1763, in order
to introduce certain imposts, but, on ac-
count of the firm resistance of the pailiar
mentis he was finally obliged to yield. The
last {t^ dejuriice were held by Louis
XVI, m 1787 and 1788.

Literary History is the scienee
whose object is to represent the develope-
ment or the successive changes of human
civilization, as fiu* as these are manifest-
ed in vnitings, as the object otpMicd

MtUny is to show the same, manifested in
the various political establishments and
changes. In a more limited sense, hterair
history treats of learned writings, dieur
contents, fiite, modifications, translations,
&c. (which is hibU^^prcqfhf, q. y,), of ^e
lives and characters of their authors^ the
circumstances under which they wrote,
&C. (which CQj^tutes UUraru hu^^nph^).
The latter bar also been called ta^emal
UUrary Matanfy the former inUmal UUrary
history, because it aims to show, in a con-
nected view, the developement of sciences:
From its nature, it is obvious that literary
histoiy could not fairly b^in until man-
kind had acquired eztenaove knowledge
of what has been done and written, which
required the preparatoiy study of centu-
ries, as wpll as a civilized hitercourse
amonff the various nations. This science
is, indeed, of comparatively recent date,
and we have by no means^ even yet, a
general literary histoiy. What we Iiave is
mostly confined to Europe ; at least, we are
yet too litde acauainted vnth many parts
and periods of the literary history of the
East, which has several times given an im-
pulse to the western world, to authorize us
to caU what has hitherto been done a sen-
eral literary history. The branch which
relates to Greece and Rome must remain of
surpassing importance. The ancients did
not treat literaiy history as a distinct de-
partment of history. The literature of
the Greeks, and, though not in the same
degree, that of die Romans,* were so inti-
mately connected with their religion and
politics, thitt a separation of literary fix>ni
general history could not easily take place ,
besidesy the materials were not sumcient
to claim a separate consideration. Hence
the classics contain only scattered notices
and detached materials for a literary his-
tonr, partly in biographies of poets, philos-
ophers, oratora, grammarians, &c. ; partly
in criticisms and extracts from their
writings. Such nodces we find in die
works of M. Terentius Yairo, Cicero,
Pliny, Quinctilian, Aulus GeDius, Dio-
nysius of flalicamaasus, Pausanias^ Athe-
nseus, and the biogn4;>hei8 Plutarch, Sue-
tonius, Diogenes Laertius, &c. Suidas
and Photius likewise contribute names
and tides. The middle a^ contribute
only detached facts to the history of their
literature, partly in chronicles, partly
in the confidential communications of
poets and other authors, respecting their
owti lives. The first rude attempt at a
compilation of general literary notices, yet
without systemafical order, was made hr
Polydore Virgil of Uibino in his work

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LITERARY HISTORY.

De ImeidarQnu Ravmy which fint ap-
peared in print in 1499. The true fiither
of literary history is the famous Conrad
Gesner, whose Biblioiheca Umversalis
contains stores of knowledge not yet ez-
haustecL In his 25th year, he besan to
execute his gmnd plan of a general \f ork
on literature, and, in three years, his mor
terials were so far prepared, that they
couJd be arranged for printing. Accord-
ing to his plan, the work was to be divided
into three parts — en alphabetical dictiona-
ry of authors, a general systematic view
of literature, which even cites single dis-
sertations and passages, and an alphabeti-
cal index of matters and subjects treated.
{See Ebert's BiUiog, Lcx^ article Gtsner)
The first edition of the first division ap-
peared in 1545.* Peter Lambeck gave in-
struction in literary history at the gymna-
sium of Hamburg, in 1656, on the plan of
Gesner and Virgil, and published, in
1659, outlines, as a text-book for his lec-
tures, the title of which is Prodromus
HistoruE LUeraruB, Daniel George Mor-
hors Pobfhislor LUerariuBj Pkilosophicua
€t Practicuf, the first edition of which
appeared in 1^8, contributed to promote
the study of literary history. Since the
beginning of the eighteenth century, lite-
niiy history has been a favorite smdy of
the learned, and has been taught in the

* Lord Bacon, in his Advancement of Learning
{IM Aug. 8ci. ii. 5), seems to have been Uie first
(1606) to have traced oat the objects and extent
of a general literaiy histoiy (Hutoria LiUrarum,
Hutoria Uteraria). ''History/' says he, "is
natoralt civi], ecclesiastical and literary ; where-
of the first I allow to be extant, the fourth I note
as deficient. For no man hath propounded to
himself the general state of learning to be de-
licnbed and represented from age to age, as many
faa%'e done the works of nature, and the state dvil
and ecclesiastical, without which the history of
the world scemeth to me to be as the statue of
Polyphemus with his eye out, that part being
«-antmg which doth show the spirit and life of the
person : and yet I am not ignorant that in divers
particular sciences, as of Uie jurisconsults, the
jnathematicians, the rhetoricians, the philoso-
phers, there are set down some small memorials
of the schools, authors and books ; and so like-
wise some barren relations touching the invention
of arts or usages. But a just story of learning,
containing the antiquities and originals of knovvi-
ed^, and their sects, their inventions, their tra-
ditions, their divers administrations and man-
agiog>s, their floorishings, their oppositions, decays,
depressions, oblivions, removes, witli the causes
and occasions of them, and all other events con-
cerning learning, throughout the ages of the
world, I may truly affirm to be wanting. The
use and end of wHicb work I do not so much de-
sign for cariosity of satisfaction of those that are
lovers of learning, but chiefly for a more serious
and grave purpose, which is, that it will make
learned men wise in the use and admuiistraiion
of learning."

TOI*. viii. 2

tmiyenrities, and in higher schools, at least
in Germany. To these lectures we owe
several Introductions, General Views, and
Systems of literary histoiy. We mention,
in chronolo^cal succession, Burkbard
Gotthelf Stmvius, professor at Jena ;
Matthew Lobetanz, professor at Greifs-
wald ; N. H. Gundling, professor in Halle ;
Gottlieb Stoll, professor in Jena ; G. G.
Zeltner, professor in Altorf ; C. C. Neu-
feld, professor in Konigsbefg ; F. G. Bier-
ling^ professor in Rinteln; and others.
Reimmann must also be mentioned on ac-
count of his Introduction to Historia lAt-
eraria (1708), and his Idea Systemaiis jin-
HquUatts LUeraria. Still more important
was Chr. Aug. Ileumann's Conspectus
RqwbUctB lAteraruB^ a work much superior
to any that had preceded it, in arran£e-
ment, acute criticism and richness of ma-
terials. John Andrew Fabricius's Sketch
of a General History of Literature (1752)
is a comprehensive work, and unites the
synthetic and analytic method. A. Y.
Goffuet was the first to introduce a more
philosophical treatment of literary history ;
and the Italian Denina rivals him in
brilliancy of manner, without equalling
him in thoroughness and originality of
views or in judgment It began to be
more and more clearly felt, that literary
history, though an independent branch of
history, woiud remain a mere list of
nam^s, tides, and dates, if it were not
treated with constant reference to the
state of religion, politics, morals, and the
arts. Attempts have been made to treat
it as a part of the general historv of civili-
zation by Iselin, Ferguson, Home, and
particularly by Herder. In recent timet?,
the Germans have taken tiie lead in this
science, both iii extent of knowledge and
comprehensiveness of views. J. G. Eicli-
hom's and L. Wachler's work is of high
value, as are also those of S. G. Wald, J.
G. Meusel and Fr. Schlegcl. It would
exceed our limits were we to mention
here the different productions upon the
literary history of single nations and par-
ticular periods. A work on an extensive
plan, though not of a general nature, is
the great enterprise of the literary society
of Gottingen — History of Arts and Sci-
ences in Europe, since the Restoration of
the same, until the End of the Eighteenth
Century. — Litenuy history is naturally
divided into ancient, middle and modern.
The ancient terminates with the retire-
ment of science into the convents, in the
sixth century; the middle begins with
the downfall of the great Roman empke
(about 500 A. D.) and the commencement

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LITERARY mSTORT— UTERART PROPERIT.

of litenxy chrilizalion in the various Ea-
ropean nadons, without the support of
ancient classical civilization (see JBerrinff-
ton^s LiUrary IKiUny of (he Middk •%»);
and the last begins about 1450, wh^i the
study of the daaaics was renewed, and
knowledge reyived in Europe*

Literary Propertt. In the whole
compass and variety of the products of
human labor, no one thing is more exclu-
sively such than intellectual works. In
the fabrication and production of almost
all other subjects of value and property,
the materials are supplied, directly or in-
directly, by the earth or the water ; and
man only cooperates with nature In fur-
nishing the article. But a piece of music,
a paiDtin|;, a poem, an oration, a history,
or a treatise of any descripdon, is the on-
spring of the unaided labor of the mind.
It IS supplied from abroad, only with the
canvass, paper, parchment, or whatever
other substance is used for recording the
work, and afibrding the evidence of its
accomplishment, but which is no more a
partof the thing produced, than a deed,
conveying an estate, is a part of the thing
conveyed. But, though the right to the
products of intellectusu labor is thus pe-
culiarly positive and absolute, it is among
the latest rij§;hts of property recognised in
a commumty, since the subject of it, the
product itself, is only the result of an ad-
vanced state of dvilizadon. Another
reason of its not attracting a more eariy
attendon, is its abstract, mcorporeai na-
ture, and also, in some cases, the difficul^
of defining; and identifying it, and decid-
rag what IS an infiingement of this right
of property ; and again, in some coun-
tries, speaking the same language as those
bordenn^ upon them, the great difficulty
of protecting this kind of property from
infriDgement, thoueh no doubt arises as to
the identificadon of the thing claimed, or
in determining what shall l^ conadered
to bo an infringement The question
whether an author has, of common right,
and independendy of any special statute
in his favor, a property in the products of
the labor of his mind, as unquestionable
and absolute as any other producer has
in chose of the labor of the hands, was
very elaborately discussed in the court of
king's bench, and in the house of lords, in .
England, in the time of lord Mansfield, in
the celebrated cases of Millar against Tay^
lor, reported in the 4th volume of Bur-
row's Reports, in relation to the copyright
of Thomson's Seasons ; and Donald^n
against Becket, reported in the same vol-
ume. The first of these cases came be-

fore the court in 1769. In 1709, tlie
statute of 8 Anne, chuptw 19, had been
passed, givim; to anthon an excluaiTe
copvri^t ^ for the term of 14 vean^ and
no longer.'* Notwitfastandmg the limitA-
don or the rin^t to that term, by the stat-
ute, it had been held, in divers cases, sub-
sequend V decided, that the exclusive prop-
erty of ue author, or his representatives
or assigns, continued after the expiraticm
of the 14 years ; and, accordingly, in
1739, lord chancellor Hardwicke granted
an injunction against a person, otl^ than
the proprietors, printing Milton's Paradise
Lost, the tide to the copyright of which
was derived to the proprietor, under an
assignment by Milton, 72 years before. In
the case relating to the copyright of
Thomson's Seasons, three of the judgee,
namely, lord Mansfield and justices Ajion
and WiUes, were of opinion, that the ex-
clufflve right of property continued after
the expiration of 14 years from the first
publication, as limited by the statute of
Anne, and such was the decision of the
court Mr. Justice Yates dissented from
that opinioiL Five years afterwards, in
1774, die other case came before the house
of lords, and, as is usual with that tribu-
nal, the opinion of the judges of the king's
bench, common pleasttnd exchequer, was
taken. Lord Mansfield, being a member
of the house of lords^ did not give an
opinion in answer to die questions pro-
pounded by the house, vrith the other
judses, but acted and voted as a member
of ^e bod^r. Of the 11 judges who gave
opinions, eight were of opinion that an
author had of common ri^t— that is, as
by the common law, or vrithout any stat-
ute to this effect — ^the exclunve privilege
of publishing his own works ; and three
were of a contrary opinion. Seven, againsi
four to the contrary, were of opinion, that,
by publishing his work and vending
copies, he did not abandon his exclusive
property to the public, or, in other words,
that, by making and selling one copy, he
did not authorize all other persons to rnake,
and use or sell as many copies as they
might choose. This seems to be so plain
a point, that, if four respectable judges
had not been of a contrary opinion, one
would be ready to say it adrmtted of no
doubt A case very analogous, but much
stronger in fiivor of'^the authors right of
property, is stated in the public journals
(1831), as having recently been decided in
France. An artist had sold a statue or
picture, the production of his own chisel
or pencil, and the question "ivas made
whether the purchaser had a right, to

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UTEBARY PROPERTY.

ifirii ennavingB of tbis orifpnaL It
I decidM, that the artist alone, and not
the purchaser, had, in auch caae, the ex-
ehisiTe right to make and pub)i&h«engray-
ed copies. But, on the other question,
proposed by the house of lords, viz.
whether the statute of Anne took away
the auth(»^8 excluaive rip^ht to his own
]KDperty, after the expiration of 14 ^ears,
mx of the judges were of opinion m the
affirmative, so that the whole 13 judges
were equally divided upon this question,
krd Mansfield being, upon this and the
two other questions, in fiivor of the au-
thor's right But the house of lords de-
dded that the author had no exclusive
right after the expiration of the period
limited in the statute, though the reasons
given on that side, by the Judges who
supported it, are veiy unsatismctory ; and
it is not easv to divine the grounds of the
dedsioQ. But^ it has been acquiesced in
as law from that time, both in England
and the U. States. Thus, while the pov-
erty of authors and scholars — ^the great
leaders and champions of civilization and
intellectual advancement-^as been pro-
verbial all the world over, the government
has interposed, or b construed to have in-
terposed, with its mighty arm, not for their
protection and reward, but to despoil
them of their property, the fruits of their
own labor, and sequestrate it for the pub-
lic use. If a man cultivates the ^und,
or fiibncates goods, the fruits of his labmr
so to him and his heirs or asslens, abso-
nitely, forever ; but if he spends his life
upon a poem or musical composition, he
only has a lease of it for 14 years, accord-
ing to the statute of Anne, when it is to
be forfeited to the public This doctrine
diqilays^ in striking contrast, the rewards
bettowed, and the forfeitures enacted, in
reference to different species of glory and
public service. While a military hero is
rewarded with a grant of lands and a title
of honor, to himself and his heirs ad in-
i&tdiim, a man of equal genius, who, by
his labors, instructs and delights mankind,
and sheds a lasting glory upon the country
of which he is a citizen, is despoiled of
the fruits of his own labors. The injus-
tice of such a doctrine is so obvious, that
its l^ality, though sanctioned by an ac-
qmescence of half a centurv, may well
be questioned. However this may be,
lejl^ifatares have begun to mitigate the
forfeitures heretofore inflicted upon lite-
rary eminence, by extending the time fer
nduch an author may enjoy the fhiits of
his own talents and industrv. By a law
passed in the 54th year of George the

Third, chapter 156^ an author is entitled
to an exclusive cop^riffht in his work for
28 years, and, if he is uvme at the end of
that period, it is continued during his life.
This act is entitled to the commendation
of being less unjust than that of Anne.
On the continent of Europe, the laws are
much more favorable, or, rather, mucn
less unfavorable, to authors. In rrance,
they are entitled to an excluave copyright
during their lives, and their heirs or as-
signs for 20 yeana afterwards. In many
of the German states, the riffht is perpet-
ual, but it is subject to this disadvantage,
that it extends only to the state in which
it is granted, and the work mayb® pirated
in the others with impunity. This can be
avoided only by procuring a copyright in
the different Grerman states, which is at-
tended with much difficulty and expense.
Tlie defect of the laws of these German
states on this subject, therefore, is not in
confiscating the author's property, or re-
fusing to recognise his right to it, but in
burtheninfr him with heavy expenses in
securing its protectiorL In Russia, the
period of the copyright is the same as in
France, and it is not liable to be seized
and sold for the payment of the author's
debts. In the U. States, the constitution
provides, that congress may secure, ^ fer
limited times, to authors, &c^ the exclu-
sive right to their respective writings," &c.
Under this provision, a law was piused, in
1790, giving to authors, being citizens of
the U. States, or being resident therein, the
sole right of printing and vending their
works for the term of 14 ^ears from the
time of recording the title in the clerk's
office ; and, if living at the expiration of
tbatperidd, and then citizens or resident
as above, they could have a renewal of
the exclusive right for 14 vears lon^r, on
filing a copy of the title again m the
clerk's office. This law also required,
that, at the commencement of each term,
the author should publish the clerk's cer-
tificate in some newspaper fer four weeks.
It also required that a 'copy should bede- •
posited in the office of the secretarpr of
state. A more liberal, or, rather, less illib-
eral, law was passed on this subject in
1831. By this act, the exclusive right is
extended to 28 years, vrith a right of re^
newal for his life, if the author is living at
the expiration of the first copyright It
dispenses with the publication of the
clerk^B certificate in a nevrspaper-^ very
useless provision ; fer, if the work itself
gives notice that the eopyri^t is secured,
a person who parates it can have no pre-
tence fer alleging igncxanoe of the net

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LITERARY PROPERTY-LITHOGRAPHY.

The act, ii]so, though it reqiures that the
author shall supply a copy for the office of
the secretary or state, excuses him from
the trouble of depoffiting it there, requiriDg
him only to leave it in the office of the
cleik of the district court (See Cofyright.)

Literature, according to tlie English
dictionaries, means (earning*. In general
use, however, this word, in English, com-
monly signffies what in other countries
would be called elegant literature^ exclud-
ing works of abstract science and mere
erudidon. The meaning of the word,
in English, however, is vague. In Gfer-
man and French, the vroA means, dis-
tinctly, the whole which has been writ-
ten. Hence die phrase *^ literature of the
middle age," or **medical literature," means
the aggregate of works written during the
middle ages, or on medicine, &c. LUermry
is applied to all those branches of read-
ing which come within the scope of a
genera] reader ; tlie phrase ".literary gen-
tleman" corresponds pretty nearly to the
French homme de lettres. Literary ga^
zette is a journal which treats of works
interesting to a general reader. In literaiy
history, the word has a more extensive
meanmg. (See Literary History.)

Lithia ; the name applied by Arfwed-
Bon to an alkali discovered by him in
analyzing tlie petalite. The name was
derived from the Greek \i9tm (stony),
in allusion to the existence of the earth in
a stony mineral. Lithia has since been
detected in spodumene, and several kiuds
of mica. The best process for procuring
it is the following : One part of {)etalite or
spodumene, in fme powder, is mixed inti-
mately with two parts of £[uor-«par, and
the mixture is heated with three or four
times its w^eight of sulphuric acid, as fong
as any acid vapors are disengaged. The
silica of the nuneral is attacked by hydro-
fluoric acid, and dissipated in the form of
fluosilicic acid gas, while the alumina and
lithia unite with sulphuric acid. After
dissolving these saks in water, the solution
is boiled with pure ammonia to precipi-
tate the alumina ; is filtered, evaporated to
diyness, and then heated to redness to ex-
pel the sulphate of ammonia. The resi-
due is pure sulphate of lidiia, which is
dissolved in water and decomposed by
acetate of baiytes ; and the acetate of
lithia, being heated to redness, is convert-
ed into the carbonate of lithia, and, finally,
this is decomposed by lime or baiytes,
which affords pure lithia. Its color is
white ; it is not deliquescent, but absorbs
carbonic acid fix>m the air $ very soluble
in water ; acrid, caustic, and acts on colors

like the other alkalies : heated with plati-
na, it acts on the metaL It combines with
the different acids, and forms salts with
them, like potash and soda, though pos-
sessed of a higher neutralizing power than
these alkalies. Its phosphate and carbon-
ate are sparingly soluble ; its chloride is
deliquescent and soluble in alcohol, and
this solution bums with a red fiame. All
its salts give a red color, when heated on
a platinum wire before the blow-pipe.
The muriate and nitrate are deliquescent.
The metallic base of lithia was evolved
by sir H. Davy, by galvanism ; but it was
too rapidly oxidized to be collected : the
metal was, however, seen to be white like
sodium, and burned with bright scintilla-
tions.

LiTHic Acid, in combination with pot-
asli, is obtained from human urinary cal-
culi, by digesting them in caustic lixivium :
the lithate of potash gives up the litiiic
acid, on being minded with acetic acid.
It has the form of white shining plates,
which are denser than water ; is without
taste or smell, and dissolves in 1400 parts
of boiling water. It reddens the infusion
of liunus. The lithates are all tasteless,
and very sparingly soluble in water.
Lithic acid, by repeated distillations, is re-
solved into ammonia, nitrogen and pms-
sic acid.

LiTuocHROMics ; the art of painting in
oil upon stone, and of taking impressions
on canvass. This process, which is de-
signed to multiply the master-pieces of
painting, was invented some years ago by
Malapeau, in Paris, who received a patent
for his invention, and has an establishment
for lithochromic productions, which have
been popular in Paris ^ice 1821. Tliis
process is a substitute for the copying of
X)ortraits ; it also serves as a cheap means
of ornamenting walls. This art, howev-
er, is stUi in its infancy. The lithochromic
paintings yet produced are less valuable
than the poorest copies. A similar but
much superior invention has been made
by Sennefelder, which he caUs mosak m-
presaion,

LiTHOeRApHT (from \iBoiy stone, and
Y^<pttvj to write); the art invented by Aloys
Sennefelder (q. v.), of taking impressions
from drawings or writings on stone, with-
out engmving. As the history of the inven-
tion of this art, and the principles on
which it depends, are contauied m the ar-
ticle Sennefelder, we shall confine ourselves,
in this place, to an account of the process
of lithographic printing, and of the mate-
rials us^ in it. Two substances are used
for drawuig upon stone— lithognipliic

Digitized by VjOOQIC

UTHOGRAPHY.

aad fidftognphie ink. The fermer
» made of 1} ounce of Boap» 3 ounces of
tafloWy 1^ ounce of pure white waz» 1
ounce abell4Bc, i ounce lamp-black.
Another receipt girea 3 ounces soap, 5
ounces wax, i ounce tallow, and 1 ounce
lamp-black. The soap^ after it has been
screped fine, is put in an iron or earthen
ressel, over the fire, and, when it is melted,
little pieces of wax and tallow arsiidded ;
it must be stirred the whole time, and,
when the heat is extreme, the contents of
die vessel are to be lighted by a burning
taper, the sdriing being continued. After
a short time, the flame is to be extinguish-
ed ; and, while the mixture is boiling, the
hanp-blsck is to be grsduaOy added.
When this is done, the mixture is taken
from the fire, and poured out on an iron
or stone plate, and may be made into any
form desnned. For uthopaphic ink, a
great many different receipts have been
given ; one of the most approved of
which IS a composition made of equal
paits of tallow, wax, sheH-lac and com-
mon soap, vnth about one twentieth peit
of thewnole of lamp-black. These ma-
terials are mixed in an iron vessel ; the
wax and tallow are first put in, and heat-
ed till they take fire, after which the
ocfa^ insredientB are succesavely added ;
the bummg is allowed to continue until
the composition is reduced about one
third. AU calcareous stones, being sus-
cqitible of taking in a greasy substance,
and of imbibing water with fiicility, are
suitable for lithographic printing, provided
they are compact, capable of receiving a
fine polish, and of a clear and uniform
color ; the more compact and uniform
in color, the better. Those commonly
used are a nearly pure carbonate of lime.
Suitable stones are by no means scarce.
Hie quarry fix>m which the first litho-
graphic stones wbre extracted, is still that
which furnishes them in the greatest
abundance, and of the largest dimensions.
It is situated at Solenhofen, near Pappen-
heim, in Bavaria. No quarries hitherto
known in France, afiford stones equal to
the German. Those found near Chateau-
roux are of a similar color to those of
Solenhofen, and even harder, and of a
finer grain ; but they are full of spots of a
softer nature, so that it is difficult to pro-
cure pieces of the necessary size. In
Eng^d, a stone has been used which is
found at Corston, near Bath. It is oneof
the white Has beds^ but is inferior to the
German in fineness of grain and closeness
of texture. When proper stones cannot
be obtained without dtmculQr or great ex-

pense, it is mam advantBgeouBlo ftbricate
artifioal elafas^ to which a proper densi^
and hardneas may be given* An intelh-
gent potter can eaaihr imitate the densi^
of natural stones. Slabs, used fqr this
piupose, have been made of stucco, com-
posed of lime and sand, and fiuatened with
the caseous part of milk. Artificial slabs,
however, have not been made so as to
equal the real ones ; and the royal insti-
tute of France have thought the subject
of sufilcient importance to ofifer a larse
prize for the hesL The stones are poliso^
ed by putting fine sand between two of
them, and thus rublnng them against each
other till the surftce is smooth ; dien each
separate stone is rubbed with water and
pumice-stone. After the stone is thus
prepared, it may be used for aU kinds of
writing and drawing, with the brush or
pen, £c. But if it is to be prepared for
chalk, it must have a rougher sumce, and,
after the application of the pumice-stone^
it is to be covered with very fine send, of
a uniform size, and rubbed with another
polished stone without water. This is
turned round and round, till the necessary
roughness is produced. Both kinds of
plates must be carefully preserved against
ffreasinesB, such as they would receive
m>m the touch of the hand, since all the
greasy spots appear in the impression, the
greasy printing ink remaining on them^
If the drawing is to be prepared with
ink, the stone is first covered with oil of
turpentine or soap-water, to prevent the
lines from spreadinff. Then tne drawings
may be made on me stone with a black
lead pencil or with a red crayon ; but the
latter is preferable, because, when the ink
comes to be applied, it is easier to discov-
er how far the lines of the drawing are
realty covered with ink. After having
dissolved the ink in rain or river water
(the former ought to have stood some
time), these pencil outlines are covered
with ink. If the sttoke is black, or, at
least, dark brown, it may he inferred that
the impression will succeed. But if li^ht
brown, and transparent, it wiU not aye
the impression. The ink may he laid on
with the pen or brush. Goose quills^
however, are not well suited for this pur-^
pose, particularly if the strokes are to l)e
very nne ; the pens are too quickly blunted^
but steel pens are used to great advantaffe t
these are made of watch springs*. After
the drawing, the plate is left several hours^
and then put under the press^ For draw^
ing with chalk, it is necessaiy to apply the
finest and softest tintsfirst, and the strongest
tfterwBxdsk Iftbe proper ofiect cannot bft

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LITHOGRAPHY— LITHUANIA.

S'ren to the ibregiouiid by chaOc only, a
tie ink is added with the brush or pen.
If the drawing has very fine tints, it is
necessary that the impression from the
plate should be taken immediately, other-
wise the oil will dry or evaporate, and
the ink will not take e^ct on these parts.
The oil varnish used must be of the best
kind. Before the stone is covered with
ink, it must first be dipped in nitric or
sulphuric acid, diluted with water to such
a degree, that only a slight effervescence
is produced ; the proportion of acid
should be but little more than one per
cent ; this vrill make the stone in the
parts not covered by the drawing more
readily imbibe the water. This process is
called etddng the drawing. Afler this, it is
merely dipped in common vmter. Great
care must be taken that the acid is not too
strong, as it will then injure the fine strokes
and tmta When the stone has imbibed
sufficient water, a liquid mixture must be
poured over it, consisting of one sixth lin-»
seed oil, two sixdis oil of turpentine, and
three sixths of pure water : this again must
be vriped off clean, and the stone must be
then covered vnih a solution of gum-
arabic in water; this prevents the lines fipom
spreading. Immediately afler tlus process,
it is inked. The printing-ink is applied by
means of leather printers' balls, stuffed
vnth hair, or by cylinders, which must be
of various sizes. The first impressions
are seldom perfect After each impres-
sion, the stone is washed with water, and,
imm time to time, is sponged over with
gum-water, which is prepared from one
ounce of finely pounded gum-arabic, and
half a pound of water. The ink which
has settled on a spot that should be light,
is either removed with a clean sponge, or
by diluted acid, applied with a sponge,
and the place is afterwards washed with
pure water. The printing-ink is com-
posed, like other printing-inks, of oil-var-
nish and fine lamp-black. To nre])are
the varnish, a vessel is about half filled
with piu% linseed oil, and heated till it
takes fire from the flame of a piece of
burning paper. It is allowed to burn till
reduced to the proper density. To de-
scribe the press, a drawing would be neces-
sary. Besides the mode of preparing
the drawings above described, drawings
are also cut into the stone, and from these
impressions are taken. Engravings may
also be multiplied by puttmg them wet on
a stone, when they come from the copper-
plate press, and subjecting tliem to pres-
sure, by which the ink is made to leave
the pq>er and adhere to the stone. Al-

tfaoush lithography ia of great me, and
exceUent impressions are produced, par-
ticulariv at Munich, it is yet veiy impmecc
In landscapes, the soft tints and the per-
spective cannot be properiy given ; the
lines are not sufficiently dehcate. The
number of impresmons which can be
taken from a Uthographic chalk drawmg,
will vary according to the fineness of the
tints. A fine drawins vriU give 400 or
500 ; a strong one, 1000 or 1500. Ink
drawings and vnritings give considerably
more than copper-plates. The finest will
yield 6000 or 8000, and stirong fines and
virritings many more. Upwards of 80,000
impressions have been taken, at Munich,
firom one writing of a fonn for regimental
returns. But it is probably susceptib^ of
farther iniprovementa Stone pfH[)er, a
substitute for stone plates, was invented bv
Sennefelder, in 1817. (See Sennefelder^
VoUst&n diges Lehrbwik der SteindnAcktny^
Munich, 1818). Lithography is now
very widely spread. In all parts of Ger-
many, also in France, Rusma, England
and the U. States, there are lithographic
printing establishments. The lithographic
process is generally employed for printing
music, and has ^ven rise to lithochromics.
(q. V.) The l^ lithographic establish-
ments, at present, are at Munich (Bavarii(j
and Paris. The French are the most ex-
pert in the process of printing. Some
beautiful lithographic prints have also
been executed at Berlin.

Lithotomy is the name given to the
operation for extracting the stone fit>m the
bladder. (See Stone.)

LiTHOTRiTT ; a surncal operation, by
which the stone in the oiadder is crudied
by an instrument invented and first ap-
plied by doctor Civiale, of Paris, in i8Sfe.
He has written on the subject

LiTHUAjriA (in the langua^ of the
country, LUwa; in German, LUhauen)',
an extensive country, formerly an inde-
pendent ^rand-duchy, containing 60,000
square miles, but in 1569 united to Po-
laiid. Since the dismemberment of that
kingdom in 1773, 1793, and 1795» the great-
er portion of it has been united to Russia,
and forms the governments of Mohilew,
Witepsk, Minsk, vVilna and Grodno. The
cUmate is temperate and heahhy, and
the face of the country nearly a level, in-
terrupted only by a few inagnificant hills.
The soil is in some parts sandy ; in othera
marshy, or covered with woods; but,
wherever it is cultivated, very produc-
tive. The principal rivera are the Dfina,
or Dwina, the Dnieper, the Niemen, the
Przypiec and Bug. There are also many

Digitized by VjOOQIC

UTHUANU— UTUROIA.

and monflBes. lithuania rmaoB
ooDfliderable numben of cattle, and pro-
ducea abundance of con, flax, hemp^
wood, honey, and waaL The mmeral
kingdom TieldB iron and tuifl The forests
are full of game ; among the wild animals
are the urua, lynx, elk, beaver, &€. Com,
wax, honey, wolf and bear skins, leath-
er, wool, and small but good horses, are
exported. The manufactures are iron,
sli^a, leather, and there are numerous
distiileries. The Lithuanians, who are of
Lettish origin (see lAwnia), were in the
eleventh centuiy tributary to Russia. They
made themselves independent when Rus-
sia was divided by the troubles under the
successors of Wladimir, and soon became
ibnnidable to their neighbors. Ringold,
in 123S, bore the tide of grand-duke, and,
under his successors, the whole of Rus-
sian Lithuania was separated fit>m Russia.
Gedemin conquered Kiev; Wladislaus
Yagello was baptized in 1386, and, by his
manriage with the Polish queen Hedwig,
united Lithuania and the conquered Rus-
sian provinces with Poland. A portion
of Lithuania, 6675 square miles, with
nearly 400,000 inhabitants, now forms
pftt of Gumbinnen, in the province of
£ast Prussia, and is fertile and well culti-
vated. (See Rusiioj and PokauL)

Litmus; a blue paste or pigment ob-
tained from the lichen pwrtUus. It is
brought from Holland at a cheap rate, but
is not much used in painting, for the least
add reddens it ; but the color is again re-
stored by the application of an alkalL
On this account, it is a veiy valuable test
to the chemist for detecting the presence
both of an acid and alkalL It is employ-
ed also for staining marble, and by alk
dyers for giving a gloss to more perma-
nent coloia. Consideralile quantities of
the lichen are collected in the northern
parts of Great Britain.

Litre. (See France^ division Decimal
Measia^.}

Litter ; a sort of vehiculary bed ; a
couch or chair wherein the Roman pa-
tricbus were borne by their servants, par-
ticularly on solemn public occanons, such
as triumphal pomps or religious ceremo-
nies. These litlerB were niosdy provided
with an awning or canopy, to preserve
their occupiers at once fit)m the heat of
tlie sun and from tlie general gaze.

Little Rock; the seat of govern-
ment of Aikansas territory, which is some-
times called by the name of Acropolis
or ArwpoUs. It is a high blufT point on
the south bank of the river Arkansas, and
doives its name from the masses of stone

about it It 18 800 milea fnm die mouth
of the river by its coune, and about half
that distance in a direct line. The viUa^p
of Acropolis was laid out in 1890, and is
but small; 1237 miles west of Washington;
lat 34'' 34^ N.; Ion. 9Sy> lO' W.

Littleton, or Ltttletoit, Thomas, a
celebrated English judge and law authori**
ty, bom at the beffuming of the fifteenth
century, at FranUey, havinf|^ been edu-
cated at one of the universities, was re-
moved to the Inner Temple, where he
studied the law, and became very eminent
in his profession. In 1455, he went the
northern circuit as judge of assize, and
was continued in the same post hf Ed-
ward IV, who also, in 1466, appointed
him one of the judges of the conunoa
pleas. In 1475, he was created a knight
of the Bath, and continued to enjoy the
esteem of his sovereign and the nation
until his death, at an advanced age, in
1481. The memoiy of judge Littleton is
preserved by his work on Tenures, which
has passed through a very great number
of editions, those from 1539 to 16S^
alone amounting to twenty-four. This
work is esteemed the principal authority
for the law of real property in England,
while the commentary of sir E. Coke is
the repositoiy of his learning on the sub-
jects treated.

Littorals ; an Italian word signifying
the sea coast, applied particularly to the
Hungarian province on the coast of the
Adriatic, comprising the three towns
Fiume, Buccan and Porto-Re, with their
territories, on the northern coast of Dal-
matia. It formerly belonged to the mili-
tary district of Croatia. The emperor
Joseph II annexed it to Hungary in 1776,
and gave it a civil government for the
encouragement of Hungarian commerce.
The district had, in 1787, 19,928 inhab-
itants upon 140 square miles. From 1809
to 1814, it fonned part of the lUyrian
provinces of France. In 1814, it was re-
stored to the Austrian empire, and, in
1822, was reunited with the provinces of
the crown of Hungary. The seat of gov-
ernment is at Fiume. (q. v.)

Liturgia (Greek, Xurovpyia) ; the ofiice
of the Xcirovpyot. These were persons in
Athens, of considerable estates, who were
ordered by their own tribe, or by tbe whole
people, to perfonn some public duty, or sup-
ply the commonwealth with necessaries at
their own expense. This institution indi-
cates the rudeness of an age in which po-
litical science had made but little progress.
These Xcirovpyoi were of. divers sorts, all
elected out of 1200 of the richest citizens,

Digitized by VjOOQIC

UTURGIA— UTURGT.

who wwe appointed by die people to un-
dertake, when lequired, all the buiden-
Bome and chargeable offices of the cook
monwealtb, every tribe electing 120 out
of their own body. These 1200 wme di-
vided into two parts, according to their
wealth. Out of the wealthiest hal( were
•appointed 300 of the richest citizens, who,
upon all exigencies, were to fiunish the
commonwealth with necessary supplies
of money, and, with the rest of the 1200,
were to perform all extraordinarv duties
in turn. If any person, appointed to un-
dergo one of the duties, could find anoth-
er person more wealthy than himself and
finee finm all the duties, the informer was
excused. This obnoxious institution was
abolished on the proposidon of Demos-
thenes. (See Wolf's Pnlewomena to De-
matherus, Bockh's PoliUeci Economy of
AthenSyBnA Potter's CTreeioiii^biKjitt^.)---
The word Xurov^ia is the origin of the
English word liturgy (q. v.l the sense
havmg become contracted m>m public
ministry, in general, to the ceremonies of
religious worship.

LlTUEOT (Greek, Xureopyia, fix>m XuToVf

public, and l^yov^ work) ; a piecomposed
form of public worship. It is merely our
intention here to mention some of the
most important liturgies, without entering
at all into the question of the primitive
forms of worship in the Christian church.
There are three lituigies used in the Greek
church — ^those of Baol^ of Chrysostom, and
of the Presanctified. They are used iu all
the Greek churches subject to the patriarch
of Constandnople ; also in the countries
originally converted by the Greeks, as
Russia, Georgia, Mingrelia, and by the
Melchite patriarchs of Alexandria, An-
tioch and Jerusalem. (King, Attef q/* ^
Gretk Church, ) TJiere are various liturgical
books in use in the Roman Catholic church,
the greater part of which are common to
all the members in communion with the
church, while others are only permitted
to be used in particidar places, or by par-
ticular monasteries. The Breviary con-
tains the matins, lauds, &C., with the va-
riations made therein according to the
several days, canonical hours, and the
like. There are various breviaries appro-

Criated only to certain places ; as the Am-
rosian breviary used m Milan, the Galil-
ean, bv the church of France, and those
of different monastic orders^ but the Ro-
man breviary is generaL It consists of
the services of matins, lauds, prime, thiiYl,
sixth, non^ vespens, complines, or the
pof^OMitffiimie, that i% of the seven hours,
on aoeount of the nying of David, ^Sev-

en timea a day do 1 pnuae thee," It ia
recited in Latin. The Missal, or volume
employed in celebrating mass, contains
the calendar, the ipneral rubrics, or rites of
the mass, and, besides such parts as are in-
variably the same, the dc tempore^ that is,
the variable parts on Sundays and holy-
days that have proper masses ; the propri-
urn aanetonmi, or the variable parts in the
masses for the festivals of such saints as
have proper masses ; and commune gando-
rum, or the variable parts on the feasts of
those saints that have no proper mass.
The canon of the mass was committed
to writing about the middle of the fifth
century. Gregorv the Great made many
additions to iL The Ceremonial contains
the offices peculiar to the pope, treating
of his election, consecration, benediction
and coronation, the canonization of saints,
the creation of cardinals, the vestments
of the pope and cardinals when celebrat-
ing the cQvine offices, &c. The Pontifi-
cale describes the fimctions of the bishops
of the Roman church, such as the con-
ferring ecclesiastical orders, consecrating
of churches, manner of excommunicating,
absolving, &c. The Ritual treats of those
fimctions which are to be performed di>v
simple priests, or the inferior clergy, both
in the public service of the church, and in
the exercise of private pastoral dutie& The
ancient Galilean litur^ is that which was
in use amonff the Gauls before the time
of Pepin and Charlemagne, who intro-
duced the Roman mode of celebrating
divine worship. The Spanish liturgy,
more commonly called the Mozarabic Uiur-
gy, is derived from that of Rome. The
Ambrosian liturgy, used in the cathedral
at Milan, derives its name froin St Am-
brose, who made some changes in it It
does not differ &om the Roman in doc-
trines, though it does in form. The
whole of the Roman liturpr is in Latin.
The Protestants all adopted their vernao-
ular tongue in the celebration of divine
service. In 1523, Lutiier drew up a litur-
gy, or form of prayer and administration
of the sacraments, which, in many pointy
differed but littie from the mass of the
church of Rome (0^a,ii, 384). He did
not, however, confine his followers to Uus
form, and hence every countiy, in which
Lutheranism prevails, has its own liturgjr,
agreeing witii die otiiers in die essentiafa,
but di^ring in many things of an mdif-
ferent nature. The prayers are read or
chanted by the minister at the altar, and
the subject of the discourse is, in mort
cases, lunited to the episde or gpepei of
theday. A new lituigy lor the princ^al

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LITURGY— UVADLL

dhrine flenice on Sundaya, holydaysy and
the cetebiudoii of the ho^ oommunion,
WBB publshed at BerUn, In 1822. This
wasdeaeDed primarily for the use of the
royal and cathedral church in Beriin, but
haar been geneially adopted in Prussia.
Calnn prepared no liturgy, but hia fbl-
lowers in Geneva, Holland, France, and
other places, drew up forms of prayer, of
which the Genevese and the French are
the most important. The Genevese litur-
gy contains the prayer with which divine
service begins, a confession of sins, public
prayers for every day in the week, and
for some paiticular occasions, the Lord's
prayer, decalogue, and creed, &c. A new
Utorgy of the French reformed church
was compiled in 1826. The Kiric of Scot-
land, or the Scotch Presbyterian church,
has no liturgy. The Directory for the
public Worship of God contains direc-
tions for the assembling of the congrega-
tion, the manner of proceeding, &c. In
1562, the Book of Common Order, or
Knox's Liturgy, was recommended to be
used by those who were unable to pray
withotit a set form. In England, before
the reformation, the public service of the
church was performed in Latm, and dif-
ferent liturgies were used in different
parts of the kingdom. The most cele-
brated of these were the Breviary and
Missal, secundum usum Sarum^ compiled
fay the bishop of Salisbury about 1060.
'niey consisted of prayers and offices,
some of very ancient origin, and others
the produce of later times. In 1536, by
Henry VIII's direction, the Bible, Pater-
noster, creed and decalogue were read
in English. In 1547, Edward VI com-
missioned Cronmer, Ridley, and 11 other
fhvines, to draw up a liturgy in English.
This was published in 15&, and again,
with some changes, in 1551, whence it
was called the Second Prayer Book of
Edward VL In the reign of James 1,
and, finally, at the restoration, it under-
went new revisions. This was the last
revisal in which any alteration was made
by authority. A limrgy of the New
Church (the Swedenbmgians) signified
by the New Jerusalem in the Revelation,
was published by the Swedenbornan
general conference in England, in 1828.
The litui^ of the episcopal church in
Scotiand, is at present not very different
fiom that of the church of England.
The attempt of Charles I (1637) to mtro-
duce into Scotland a book of common
prayer, co{Med fiom the English, produc-
ed the solemn league and oovenant The
Diiectory was afterwards adopted, but

by no means stricdy adhered to. In 17151;
the Enirliah Book of Common Prayer
vras finaUv adopted, with some modifica-
tions. The Book of Common Prayer of
the Protestant Episcopal church in the U.
States was adopted in 1789, and, besides
some minor deviations fiom the English,
it omits the Athanasian creed, and, in the
Aposties' creed, leaves the officiating
minister the discretional power of substi-
tutinff, fbr the expression ^he descended
into heU," "he went into the place of de-
parted spuits." It has adopted the obla-
tion and invocation in the communion
service, in which it approximates to the
Scottisli communion office, and has add
ed six forms of prayer— for the visitation
of prisonere; for thanksffivins for the
fruits of the. earth and omer blesBongs;
for morning and evening prayer in fami-
lies ; for tlie consecration of a church or
chapel; and, lasdy, a beautiful and im-
pressive office of institution of ministera.
7See Koecher's BUdioiheca LUurgiea;
Bingham's Originea EecUsiastjctt ; Com-
ber's ScholasHcal History of LUurgies,)

LivADiA ; the ancient Hellas (q. v.), or
Middle Greece (see Greece)] situated to
the south of Janna, or Thessaly (q. v.),
and north of Morea (q. v.), bounded east
by the iEgean, and west by the Ionian
sea, 5800 square miles in extent, and
containing 250,000 inhabitants, chiefly
Greeks. The name is derived from the
town of Livadia (or Lebadia ; 2000 houses
and 6000 inhabitants). The boundary be-
tween Livadia and Thessaly is formed
by the mountain GSta (on whose summit
Hercules was bumedj, now called Kumai-
t€U It is only accessible, at least for artil-
lery, by a narrow pass between CEta and
the swamps on the Malian gulf (gulf of
Zeitouni), or the famous pass of Ther-
mopylee. (q. v.) In the war of the Greek
revolution, several decisive battles were
fought in this part of the country, the
most bloody near the town of Zeitouni,
the ancient Lamia, which lies to the
north. From this pass, which is about
mx miles long, we enter, 1. Locris, the
northerly part of Livadia ; farther south
lie, 2. Phocis, with the ancient ElatSBa,
now Turko-Chorio, watered by the river
Cephissus, and intersected by mount
Parnassus (q. v.); and, still more south-
erly, 3. Bceotia; 4. Attica; and 5. Me-
r'is; to the west are, 6. iEtolia; and
Acamania. The ancient names of
places are now revived, and Middle
Greece has been divided into East and
West Hellas. (See Grtece^ RevchOUm ^
Modem,) The boundary of Greece, as

Digitized by

c^,. J

UVADIA—LIVERPOOL.

aetded hy the protocol of Febraaiy, 1890,
runs north or Liyadia, thus pladnff h
within the kingdom of Greece. The
character of the present inhabitants of
these countries is as various as their de-
scent and mode of life. The first in«
habitants of the coast were chiefly of
foreign, or, as the Greeks called it, of
barbarian descent Their occupation
was piracy. The mountaineers were
robbers, constantly at war with their op-
presBOFB. Missolonghi (q. v.), the only
strong-hold on the western coast, has
been rendered celebrated by late events.
To the north is the ancient Actium (q. v.),
or Azio. Preveso, which, with Parga (q. v. ),
and the coast of Epirus, was ceded to the
Turks in 1800, and Arts (q, v.), near the
gulf of Arta, belong to Albania. In the
southeriy part of Locris lies Lepanto.
(q. V.) In JBoBotia (q. v.) is the town Li-
vadia, formerly Lebadia, at the foot of
noount HeUcon, near which are the cave
of Trophonius (q. v.), and the fountains of
Mnemosyne (memory) and Lethe (ob-
livion). Not far off are Leuctra and Pla-
tBML (q. v.), and the ruins of Thespiss,
whose inhabitants were selected by Le-
onidas to die for their country, with the
300 Spartans. Tanagra, on the iEsopus,
was the birth-place of the celebrated
Corinna. (q. v.) Mount Cithaeron divides
BcBotia from Attica (q. v.) and from Me.>
8">™- (<1* '^•) (^^ Cfreece.)

Livs Oak. (See Oak.)

Liver (jeeur, h^ar)\ a large gland
whicli occupies a considerable portion
of the cavir^ of the belly, and which
secretes the bile. It is a single organ, of
an irregular shape, browntSi-red color,
and, in eeneral, is snudler in propor-
tion OS the individual is more healthy.
It occupies the right hypochorubium^ or
space included by the false ribs, and a
pert of the epigastric region, and lies im-
mediately under the diaphragm (midrifT),
above the stomach, the transverse colon,
and right kidney ; in front of the verte-
bral column, the aorta and the inferior
vena cava, and behind the cartilaginous
edge of the chest The right falw ribs
are on its right, and the spleen on its left
The superior surface is convex, and the
inferior is irregularly convex and concave,
which has given rise to the division into
the right, or large lobe, the smaU, or ifjfe-
rior lobe, and the UJl k>be. The nshx ex-
tremity of the liver is lower than &e left,
and is the most bulky part of the oigon*
The pressure of the surrounding organs^
and certain folds of perUoneum, called its
UgameaUt which connect it with the dia-

phnjgm, retain the liverin its pkoe, lesv-
mg it, at the same time, a considerable
power of changing its relative position.
The organization of the hver is veiy
complicaled. Be^des its peculiar tissue,
or parenchyma, the texture of which is
unknown, it receives a larger number of
vessels than any other gland. A peculiar
venous erpten^— that of the vena porta-
rum — is cfistributed in it To this must be
added the ramifications of the hepatic or
tery and veins^ the nerves, which are
small, the lymphatic vessels, the excreto-
ry tubes, and a peculiar tissue, enclosed
by a double membrane, a serous or peri-
toneal, and a cellular one. Th^ excreto-
2 apparatus of the bile is composed of
e hepatic duct, which, rising imme-
diately from the liver, unites with the
cystic duct, which terminates in the gall-
bladder. The choledochic duct is form-
ed by the union of the two preceding, and
terminates in the duodenuau (See Ckdl'
Bladder, and BUeA

Liverpool ; a twrough town of Eng-
land, in the county palatine Lancaster ; the
principal seaport in the British dominions.
It extends aionf the eastern bank of the
Meraey, about mree miles, and, at an av-
erage, about a mile inland. On the west
si4e of it, and forming a remarkable fea-
ture in the town, lie the docks, which,
with the wharfis, warehouses, dtc, extend
in on immense range along the bank of
the river. On the other sicto, the town is
prolonged into numerous suburbs, con-
sisting of villas and countiy houses, the
residence or retreat of its wealthy citizens.
The streets are mosdy spacious, airy,
some of them elegant, and the greater
part of them lighted with cool gas. The
older and more confined parts of the
town are in a state of improvement The
public buildings are elegant The princi-
pal of these are the town hall, exchange
Duildinfls, com exchange, Wceum, athe-
nsBum, Wellington rooms, innrmary, woik-
house, blue-coat school, dispensary, and
osylum for the blind. There are at pres-
ent 20 churches belonging to the estab-
lishment, many of them of much archi-
tectural beauty ; a greater number of
chapels belonging to various denomina-
tions of dissentera ; with four Roman
Catholic chapels, a meeting-house for
Quakers, and a Jews' synagogue. The
charitable institutk>ns are numerous ond
well conducted. About 1500 patients are
admitted annuallvinto the infirmarv. The
blue-coat hospital maintains and educates
about 900 boys and girls. The school fr,
the blind is on a most eztaiuive scal^

•I

Digitized by VjOOQIC

UTERPOOL-LIVERPOOL, EARL OP.

A handaome and apecioufl dieatre, and a
drcofl^ are open during great fnit of the
year. At the royal Liverpool uisdtution,
poUic lectures are ^ven; and attached to it
IS a phHosophical apparatus and a museum
of natural curiosities. A botanic garden
was abo established in 1801, at an expense
of about £10,000. The lyceum and the
adieneom consiat each of a news-room
and fibraiy. There are also the Union
newB-room, the music-hall, the Welling-
ton rooms, opened in 1816, for balis, con-
certs, &C., tne town haU, the exchan^
buildings, erected in lb08, for commercial
purposes. The area enclosed by the fronts
of these buildings and the town hall, is IS^
fiec l^ 178. In the centre of the area is
ejected a suoerb group of broDZ« statua-
ly, supposed to be the largest in the king-
dom, to commemorate the death of loni
Nelson. Tbe trade of Liyerpool is very
extenave. The most important branch
is the trade with Ireland, from whence are
imported from 2300 to 2500 cargoes of
provisions, grain, &c ; and in return are
shipped salt, coaia, earthenware, &C. Tbe
second branch of commerce is that with
tbe U. States, which conaistB of more than
three fourths of the whole commerce of
this countiy vnth England. Of this com-
merce, cotton-wool IS the chief articlei
and may be termed the staple of the Liv-
erpool trade. In 1830, of 793,695 bales
of cotton imported into England, 703,200
%vere carried mto Liverpool In 1824, the
whole amount imported into liverpool
was 578,323 bales, of which 413,724 were
frun the U. States. The West India
trade may be considered next in impor-
tance. The trade of Liverpool to other
parts of die gl6be, is very ^eat, and rap-
idly increasing particulariy to the East
Indies. In 1824, the amount of the ex-
ports of Liverpool was £20,000,000 ster-
ling ; the number of vessels belonging to
the port in 1829, was 805, of 161,780 tons.
Liverpool has an extended system of ca-
nal navigation, which has grown up with
its increasing trade, and by which it has
a water conmiunication with the North
sea. The manufactures are chiefly those
connected with shipping, or the consump-
tion of the inhabitants. There are ex-
tensive ux>n and brass founderies, brewe-
ries^ soap-woricB and suear-houses. In
the vicinity are many wind-mills for grind-
ing com, which have a veiy striking ap-
pearance ; also a large tide-mill, and
another worked by steam. A great num-
ber of men are employed in building, re-
pairing and fitting out vessels. Of the
finer manufactures, the watch-movement

and tool buaineea is earned on extensively,
being almost entirely confined to this part
of the kinsdoqi ; and in the neighbor-
hood is a china-manu&ctoty, where beau-
tiful specimens of porcelain are produced*
Liverpool sends two memben to pariia-
ment, chosen by about 4500 fifeemen. It
is goveined by the corporation, consisting
of a common council of 41 persons, from
amonff whom a mayor and two bailiffs are
anhuallv chosen by the free burgesses.
The foUowing is an account of the pro-
gressive increase of its population : — ^In
n700, 5000 ; m 1760, 2^000 ; in 1773,
34,407 ; in 1790, 56,000 ; in 1801, 77,653 :
in 1811, 94,376 ; in 1821, 118,972 (or, in-
cluding the suburbs and a floating popu-
lation of 10,000 sailors, 151,000) ; m l&l,
163,000; with die suburbs, 200,000. The
Liverpool and Manchester rail-road com-
mences with a tunneL 22 feet high, 16
broad, 6750 long. The thickness mm
the roof to the surftce of the ground, va-
ries from 5 feet to 70. About two thirds
of it is cut throuffh solid rock. The rail-
road is continued through the remaining
distance of 30 miles, wim embankments,
viaducts and excavations. It is traversed
by locomotive steam-carnages, consuming
their own smoke, and running at the rate
of 18 miles an hour. The quantity of
merchandise conveyed between Liver-
I)ool and Manchester, has lately b€«n es-
timated at 1500 tons a day, the number of
passen^rs at 1300. But the most remark-
able objects in Liverpool are its inmiense
docks. The old dock, the first opened,
was constructed in the beginnmg of the
eighteenth cenmry. In 1821, there were m
docks and basins, covering an area of 63
square acres. The Brunswick dock has
since been added, of 10 acres, and addi-
tional docks are in contemplation, which
will give an area of 92 square acres. In
1724, the dock dues were £810 lis.; in
1828, £141,369, on 10,700 vessels. Before
the sixteenth centuiy, Liverpool was a
mere hamlet ; in 1716, her merchants be-
gan to encage in the trade to America
and the West Indies. The growth of the
manufactures of Manchester promoted
the growth of the place, while an exten-
sive contraband commerce with South
America and the chief portion of the AfH«
can trade, made it the firat seaport in Great
Britain. 204 miles f]x>m London ; 36 fit>m
Manchester ; Ion. 2'' 59^ W. ; lat 53^ 25^ N.
Liverpool, Charles Jenkinson, earl o^
wos tbe eldest son of colonel Jenkinson,
the younsest son of sir Robert Jenkinson,
the first baronet of tbe &mily. He was
bom in 1727, and educated at the Cfaar>

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LIVERPOOL, EARL OF-UVER\.

ter-house, wnence he removed to Uniyer-
aity coU^e, Oxford, where he took the
degree of M. A. m 1752. In 1761, he ob-
tained a seat in pariiament, and was made
mider-secretaiy of state. In 1766, he was
named a iora of the admiralty, from
which board he subeequenth^ removed to
that of the treasury. In 1772, be was ap-
pointed vice-treasurer of Ireland, and was
rewarded with the sinecive of the clerk-
ship of the Pells, purchased back from Mr.
Fox. In 1778, he was made secretary at
war, and, on the dissolution of the admin-
istration of lord North, joined that portion
of it which supported Mr. Pitt, under
whose auspices he became president of
the board of trade, which office he held
in conjunction with the chancellorship of
the duchy of Lancaster, ffiven him in
1786. In the same year (1786), he was
also elevated to the peerage, by the tide
of baron Hawkesbury, of Hawkesbury, in
the county of Gloucester ; and, in 1796,
he was created earl of Liverpool. He re-
mained president of the board of trade
until 1801, and chancellor of the duchy
of Lancaster until 1803. His death took
place on the 7th December, 1608, at which
time he held the sinecures of collector of
the customs inwards of the port of Lon-
don, and clerk of the Pells in Ireland.
The earl of Liverpool for a long time
shared in all the obloquy attached to the
confidential friends of the Bute adminis-
tration, and, in a particular manner, was
thought to enjoy the favor and confidence
of emerge III, of whom it was usual to
regard him as the secret adviser. The
earl of Liverpool was the author of the
following works — a Discourse on the Es-
tablishment of a Constitutional Force in
England (1756] ; a Discourse on the Con-
duct of Great Britain in Regard to Neutral
Nations, during the present War (1758) ;
a Collection of Treaties, from 1646 to
1673 (3 vols., 8vo., 1785) ; a Treatise on
the Coins of the Realm, in a Letter to the
King (1805).

Liverpool, Robert Banks Jenkinson,
earl of; son of the preceding; bom in
1770, and died in 1828 ; known in public
life, from 1796 to 1808, as lord Hawkes-
bury ; from 1812 to 1827, first lord of the
treasury. He was educated at the Char-
ter-house; on leaving wliich, he was enter-
ed of Christ-church, Oxford. His &tiier
directed his reading and studies in polit-
ical economy, and other branches of po-
litical science at this time ; and, on leaving
the miiversity, Mr. Jenkinson set out on
his travels. He was in Paris at the out-
break of the French revolution, and, in

1791, took his seat in the house of com-
mons, in which he distinguished himself
as a debater and an efficient member of
the house. In 1801, he was appointed
secretary of state for foreign afl»irs, and,
two yeara later, was called to the house
of peers as baron Hawkesbury. On the
death of Pitt (1806), the premiership was
oflTered him, but declined ; and, after the
short administration of Fox, his former
office was again conferred on him, in the
Percival ministry. After the assassination
of Mr. Percival, lord Liverpool (as he had
become, on the death of his fatiier, in
1808) accepted (1812), though reluctantly,
the post of premier. His administration
was marked by great moderation and pru-
dence at home, but the foreign dci>art-
ment bore the different impress of lord
Londonderry (q. v.) and Canning, (q. v.)
Lord Liverpool lost popularity by the trial
of the queen, which was closed, as is well
known, by the abandonment of the bill
of pains and penalties, on the part of the
ministers. It was on this occasion, that
earl Grey demanded of him '^how he
dared, upon such evidence,to bring forward
a bill of degradation, the discussion of
which had convulsed the country fi^m
one end to the other, and might have been
fatal to her independent existence.** A
paralytic stroke, in the beginning of 1827,
having rendered him incapable of attend-
ing to business, Mr. Caiming succeeded
him in the premiership.

Liverwort. The plant so called is tlie
hepatica triloba of Pursh. Like many
otner supposed remedies, it has had a
temporary reputation for the cura of pul-
monary consumption. It is a pretty uttlo
plant, flowering very early in spring, and
IS common to the U. States and Europe.
There are two varieties, one with obtuse,
and the other with acute lobes to the

LivERT (Kvrie). At the plenary courts in
France, under the sovereigns of the sec-
ond and third races, the king delivered to
his servants, and also to those of die queen
and the princes, particular clothes. These
were called livries, because they were
delivered at the king's ex]3ense. The ex-
pense of Uiese donations, together with
that of the table, the equipages, the pres-
ents for die nobles and the people, amount-
ed to an immense sum. A prudent econ-
omy afterwards suppressed these plenary
courts, but the livery of the servants still
remained. In London, by livenj or /iVe-
ry menj are meant tiiose frecnien of the
city who belong to tlie 91 city conipaniea,
which embrace the various ti*ades of the

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LIVERY— LIVINQgrrON.

metropolfe ; they have the ezclmive priv-
ilege of voQDg at the ejection of membeia
of parliameDtand of the lord majror. Out
of this hody, the common council, aher-
if&y aldermen, and other officers for the
government of the city, are elected.

Ljtia DausUiLA ; wife of the emperor
Augustus, daughter of Livius Drusus
Claudjanus, whp lost his life in the battle
of Phiiippi, on the side of Brutus and
Cassius. She was first married to Tibe-
rius Claudius Nero, by whom she had two
fiona, viz. Drusus and Tiberius. When
she fled with her husband to Italy, before
the triumvir Octavianus, she narrowly es-
caped lieing made prisoner by him, who
afterwards became her husband. From
that place, she went with her son to An-
tony, in Achaia, and when her husband
was reconciled to Augustus, returned to
Rome. Here her personal and mental
charms made such an impression on the
triumvir, that he repudiate his wife Scri-
bonia, in order to many her, and, in the
7 I5ih year of Rome, tore her, though preg-
tuuit, from her husband. Livia knew how
to use her power over the heart of Augus-
tus, for the attainment of her ambitious
purposes, and effected the adoption of
one of her sons as successor to the throne.
I At her instigation, Julia, the only daugh-
ter of Augustus, was banished. Ancient
wrilGis, too, almost universally ascribe to
Iter the deaths of the young Marcellus, of
Lucius Ciesar, and the banishment of
Agrippa Poethumus. Augustus, having
no longer any near r^tives, yield-
ed to her requests in favor of Tiberius.
In the emperor's will, Livia was consti-
nited the first heiress, was received into the
Julian fiimily, and honored with the name
of Auf^usta. She vras also made chief
priestess in tbe temple of the deified Au-
gustus, and many coins were struck in
her honor. But Tiberius proved himself
veiy ungrateful to his mother, to whom
he was indebted for every thing, and
would not allow the senate to bestow up-
on her any further marks of respect. He
did not, however, treat her in public with
disrespect ; but, when he left Rome, in
order to gratify his lusts in an uulnter-
nipled solitude, he fell into a violent dis-
pute with her, did not visit her in her last
ncknesB, would not see her body afler her
death, and forbade divine honors to be
paid to her memory.

Livingston, Philip, one of the signers
of the American Declaration of Inde-
nendence, was bom at Albany, in New
York, January 15, 1716, was graduated
at Yale college, in 1737, and became a

VOL. VIIL. 3 *

merchant in New York. In 1750L he was
returned a member to the geneial anem-
bly of the colony, and afterwards to dbe
general congress of 1774, and to the con-
gress that issued the Declaration of Incto-
pendence. In 1777, Mr. Livingston was
a senator in the state legislature of New
York. In 1778, he viras again deputed to
the general congress, where his efforts
aggravated a dropsy of the chest He
^ died, Juue 12, 1778, at Yoik, PennsyJ-
' vania, to which congress had retired.

Livingston, Robert R., an eminent
American politician, was bom in the city
of New York, Novemlier 27, 174a He
was educated at King's college, and grad-
uated in 1765. He studied and practised
law in that city with great success. Near
the commencement of the American rev-
olution, he tost the office of recorder, on
account of his attachment to liberty, and
was elected to the first general congress
of the colonies ; was one of the commit-
tee appointed to prepare the Declaration
of Independence ; in 1780, was appoint-
ed secrctaiy of foreian affairs, and,
throughout the war of the revolution,
signalized himself by his zeal and effi-
ciency in the revolutionary cause. (See
his letters, in the DipLomatk Correspand-
ence qf the Revolution,) At the adoption
of the constitution of New York, he wa«i
appointed chancellor of that state, whicli
office he held until he went, in 1801, to
France, as minister plenjpotentiaiy, ap-
pointed by president Jefferson. He was
received by Napoleon Bonaparte, then firet
consul, with marked respect and cordiali-
ty, and, during a residence of several yean
in the French capital, the chancellor a|>-
peared to be the favorite foreign envov.
He conducted, with the aid of Mr. Mon-
roe, die negotiation which ended in the
cession ^f Louisiana to the U. States,
took leave of the first consul (1804), and
made an extensive tour on the continent
of Europe. On his return from Paris, as
a private citizen, Napoleon, then emperor,
presented to hun a splendid snuit-box,
with a miniature likeness of himself (Na-
poleon), painted by the celebrated Isabey.
It was in Paris that he formed a friend-
ship and close personal intimacy with
Robert Fultou, whom he materially as-
sisted with counsel and money, to mature
his plans of steam navigation. (See iW-
ton, and Steam-Boat,) In 1805, Mr. Livings-
ton returned to the U. States, and thence-
forward employed ^imself in promoting
the arts and agriculture. He introduced
into tiie state of New York tbe use of
gypsum and the Merino race of sheep.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

uwnGmosf^LPfsm.

He was president of die New Yoik acad*
emy of nne aits, of which he was a chief
founder, and also of the society for the
promotion of agriculture. He died March
26, 1813, with the reputation of an able
statesman, a learned lawyer and a most
useful citizen.

Livingston, Brockholst, judge of the
supreme court of the U. States, was the
son of William Livingston, governor of
New Jersey, and was W)m in the city of
New York, November 25, 1757. He en-
tered Princeton college, but, in 1776, left
)t for the field, and became one of the
family of seneral Schuyler, commander
of the northern army. He was afterwards
attached to the suite of general Arnold,
with the rank of major, and shared in the
honor of the conquest of Burgoyne. In
1779, he accompanied Mr. Jay to the court
of Spain, as his private secretary, and re-
mained abroad al)out three years. On his
return, he devoted himself to law, and was
admitted to practise in April, 1783. His
talents were happily adapted to the pro-
fession, and soon raised him into notice,
and, ultimately, to eminence. He was
called to the bench of the supreme court
of the state of New York, January 8,
1802, and, in November, 1806, was trans-
ferred to that of the supreme court of the
U. States, the duties or which station he
discharged, with distmguished &ithful-
ness and ability, until his death, which
took place during the sittings of the court
at Washington, March 1^ 1823, in the
66th year of his age. He possessed a
mind of uncommon acuteness and ener-
gy, and enioyed the reputation of an ac-
complished scholar, and an able pleader
and jurist, an upright judge, and a Uberal
patron of leammg.

Livius, Andronicus, the &ther of Ro-
man poetry, by birth a Greek of Taren-
tum, nrst went to Rome at the commence-
ment of the sixth century from the foun-
dation of tlie city, as instmcter to the
children of Livius Salinator. He intro-
duced upon the Roman stage, dnunas
after the Grecian model, and, besides seve-
ral epic poems, wrote a translation of the
0<lysBey, in tlic old Saturnine verse. We
have only a few fragments of his writings,
which may be found in the CmniciLalim,
and the Corpus PoHarum, (See Fabricius,
Bib. Lot, iv, 1. ; Tit. Livii, Hist, vii, 2.)

Livius, Titus, bom at Padua, m the
year of Rome 695 f59 B. C), came from
the place of his birth to Rome, where he
attracted the notice of Augustus, after
whose death he returned to his native
town, where he died A. D. 16. His his-

tory of Romei to iidiich he dBnuM SK>
years, rendered him 00 celebrated, that a
Spaniard is said to have gone fiom Cadiz
to Rome merely for the purpose of seeing
him. Of the circumstances of his life we
know little. He was caQed, by Augustus,
the Pompeian, because he defended the
character of Pompey, in his histoiy ; this,
however, did not prevent his enjoying the
patronage of the emperor till the time of
his death. According to Suidas, Livy did
not receive, during his hfetime, the ap-
plause which his history deserved, and it
was not till after his death that full justice
was rendeincd him. In the fifteenth cen-
tury, his body was supposed to have been
discovered at Padua, and a splendid mon-
ument was raised to his memory. HiH
Roman history begins at the landing of
iEueas in Italy, and comes down to tlie
year of the city 744. His style is clear
and intelligible, labored without allecta-
tion, diffuzjive without tediousucss, and
argunientuti ve without i>edantry. H is de-
scriptions are singularly lively and pictu-
resque, and there are tew specimens of
oratory superior to that of many of tbo
speeches with which his narratives are
interspersed. Yet he was accused (see
QutniifZian, viii, 1) of provincialism (^ pa-
taviniias"). His whole work consisted of
140 or 142 books, of which we have
remaining only the first 10, and those
from the 21st to the 45th, or the first,
third and fourth decades, and half of the
fifth. In the first 10 books, the histor}'
extends to the year 460 ; the portion
between the 21st and 45th books contains
the account of the second Punic war
(A. U. C. 5361 and the history of the city
to the year 586. In the year 1772, Bruus,
while engaged in collecting various read-
ings, discovered, ui a codex rescryrtusj in
the Vadcan, a fragment of the 91st book ;
but it is not of much importance. It was
printed at Rome, and reprinted at Leipsic,
m 1773. The epitome of tlie whole work,
which has been preserved, has been as-
cribed, by some, to Livy, by others, to
Florus. Following this outline, and de-
riving his facts firom other credible sources
of Roman history, Freinsheim composed
his Supplement to Livy. The l)est e<li-
tions or Livy are those of Gronovius
(Amsterdam, 1679, 3 vols.), of Dndcen-
borch (Leyden, 1738—46, 4 vols.), and,
among the later editions, those of Emesti,
Schafer, Ruperti find Doring. The best
English translation .is that of George
Baker (6 vols., 1797), which has been
often reprinted in England and the U.
States.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LIVONIA-4JZARD.

LiToiiiA. The RuflBiaDimfTuioes upon
tfie Baltic, tIz. Livonia, EsdKmia, Cour-
land and Semigallia, early belonged to the
Ruflrian atate^ aa tributaneB, wliile they
retained their on^ institutioiifl, and were
nerer protected by the RusBiaiia from hos-
tile inroads. During the period' when the
ltiMM««« empire was in a state of confii-
■ion, they became independent, but were
again reduced to subjection by Peter the
Great. Livonia was little known to the
rest of Europe till 1158, when some mer-
dianta of Bremen, on their way to Wisby,
in Gothland, in search of new sources of
commerce, were thro^vn upon the coasts
of Livonia. The countiy was afterwards
frequently visited by the people of Bre-
men, who soon formed setdetnents there.
An Augustine friar, Meinhard, with other
Gennans, emigrated thither about 28
years after. He converted the inhabitants
to Christianity, and was their first bishop.
The third bishop after him, by name
Albert, who advanced as far as the Dwina,
fint firmly established the foundations of
the 8|riritual authority. He built the city
of Riffa, in the year 1200, and made it the
see of the bishopric. At the close of this
centuiy, the Danish king, Canute VI,
made lumaelf master of these provinces,
which were, however, given up by his
BQCcessor, Wladimir ill, for a sum of
money, to the Teutonic knights, with
whom the order of Brethren of the Sword,
founded by Albert, in 1201, had been
imited, so that the dominion of the Teu-
tonic order comprehended all the four
provinces above mentioned. They were,
however, too weak to hold them against
the Rosnan czar, John II Wasiliwitcb,
who was bent upon reunitirg them with
the Russian empire, and the sbite was
dJsBolved. Esthonia then placed itself
under the protection of Sweden ; Livonia
was united to Poland ; and Courland, with
Semigallia, became a duchy, under Polish
protecdoii, which the last grand master of
the Teutonic order held as a Polish fief
From this time, Livonia became a source
of discord between Russia, Sweden and
Poland, ibr near a century, from 15G1 to
1660. At the peace of Olivo, in lOtiO, this
province was ceded to Sweden by Poland,
and it was again united to the province
of Esthonia. (q. v.) By the peace of

Nyatadt, in 1731, both pfoviiieea wwa
again united to the RiMun empire. li-
▼(Miia 18 bounded eaat bjr Ingria, south by
Lithuania and Samoiiitia, west by the
Baltic, and north by the gulf of Finland.
It is productive in grass and grain, and
consists of two provinces, Esthonia and
Livonia, of whicn the first lies upon the
gulf of Fmland, the last upon the borden
of Courland and Poland. The Livoniani^
like the Lithuanians, are a branch (^
the Finns, and are, for the most part, in a
state of servitude ; but the grievous op-
pression, under which they were hekl by
theu- tyrants, the nobility, has been much
lightened by an imperial decree of 1804.
l^ides the original mhabitants, there are,
in the countiy, many Russians, Germans
and Swedes. The greater part are Lu-
therans ; but Calvinists, Catholics, and the
Greek church, enjoy liberty of worship.
In 1783, the country was newly organized,
and Livonia became the govenmient of
Riga, and Esthonia that of Revel. The
name of Livonia was, however, restored
by the emperor Paul, in 1797. It is, at
present, divided into ^ye circles. The gov-
ernment of Riga contains 20,000 square
miles, and 980,000 inhabitantB. — See the
Eisai star VIKtioirt dt la Uioome^ by
count de Bray (Dorpat, 1817, 3 vols.),
and Granville's Jovrney to St, Peten-
burg(l&i8).

LivRE ; an ancient French coin. Tbs
word is derived from the Latin libra
(q. v.), a pound. It appears as early as
810 B. C. At first, the hvre was divided
into 20 totidoa ; afterwards into 10 ious ;
in Italy, into 20 soldi; in Spain, into
20 sueidoB^ as the old German pound into
20 schilUngey and the English mto 20
shillings. The livre was, at first, of high
value. The revolution changed the name
into franc, (See FhmCj and Coins,)

LivT. (See Licius,)

Lizard. All reptiles having a naked
body, four feet and a tail, are vulgarly
known under the name of lizards, lin-
nsus himself only constituted two gene-
ra of this numerous class of animals —
ikaco and lacerta; but more modem nat-
uralists have gready increased the num-
ber of genera. The following is the- ar-
rangement followed by Cuvier in the
kist edition of his Rignt t ' '

Digitized by VjOOQIC

UZARO— LLAHA.

Beoond Order of REPTILIA, or 8AURIENS.

Fahilt I.
CROCODILIENS.
Crocodilui, Br.
8ub-genera, 3.
Family II.
LACERTIENS.
Monitor.
Laoerta.
Sab-geoera, 7.
Family III.
IGUANIENS. .
Sbctioit L
Acamiens.

Stellio, Cm,
A^nuii Dtmd,
lotiuraa, Cw.
Draco, Lm.

Sttb-genera, 18.

Bbotioit n.
I^uaniena proper.
Iffuana, Cuv.
Ophr^essa, BaU.
BasiliscoB, Daud,
Polychras, Cuv.
Ecphimotefl, Pitz,
Oplurus, Cut.
AnoliuB, Cuv.

Family IV.

GECROTIENS.

Gecko, Baud,

Sub-genera, 8.

Family V.

CHABLELIONIEN8.

ChamiBleo.

Family VI.
SCINCOIDIENS.
Scincus, Daud.
Sepi, Daud,
Bipes, Lacep.
Chalcides, Daud,
Chirotes, Cuv.

BeaideB these, the salamandere, which
belonff to the fourth order, or Batraciens,
are awo geDerally termed lizards. (See
n^mgatoTj BasUisky ChameUori, CrocodUe,
Dragon, Gtcko, J^uanOj MoftUor, &c.|

Lizard, 'Cape ; the most soutliem
promoDtoiy of England, in the county
of Cornwall.

Llama iauchenioj Ulig.). This valuable
animal, which supplies the place of the
camel to the inhabitants of Southern
America, is much more graceful and del-
icate than the Eastern ** ship of the desert**
Then* slender and well formed leffs bear
a much more equal proportion to the size
and form of their body. Their necks are
more habitually maintained in an upright
position, and are terminated by a much
smaller head. Their ears are long, point-
ed, and very movable; their eyes large,
prominent and brilliant, and the whole
expression of their physiognomy conveys
a degree of intelligence and vivacity that
is wanting in the camel. There has been
much di&rence of opinion among natu-
ralists as regards the number of species.
The first travellers in America spoke of
the Uama, the ptanaco, the alpacOy and
the vicugna, without giving such details
as were requisite to identify tliem. Most
of the eariy naturalists, including Linneeus,
reduced them to two species, the llama or
gwmacoy used as a beast of burden, and
me alpaca, paco or vicugna, prized for its
wool and ;^esh. Buffon was at first of the
same opinion, but, subsequently, admitted
the vicugna as a third species. Motina
also separated -the guanaco, and added a
fifth, the hueque or Ualian ahup, both of
which species were adopted by most sub-
sequent compilere. Mr. F. Cuvier, howev-
er, limits the number to three, rejecting the
two last mentioned ; whilst baron Cuvier
only admits the Uama and the vicugna, con-
Mdering the alpaca as a variety of the first

The llamas inhabit the CordiUerss of the
Andes, but are most common in Peru and
Chile ; tliev are rare in Colombia and Par-
aguay. They congregate in Urge herds,
which sometimes consist of upmrds of a
hundred individuals, and feed on a grass
peculiar to the mountains, termed ycho.
As long as they can procure green herb-
age, they are never known to drink. At
the period of the arrival of the Europeans
in Peru, these animals were the only ru-
minants known to the inhabitants, by
whom they were used as beasts of burden,
and killed in vast numbers for their flesh
and skins. Gregory de Bolivar asserts
that, in his time, 4,000,000 were annually
killed for food, and 900,000 used in the
service of the mines of Potosi. From
the form of their feet, they are pecu-
liarly fitted for mountainous countries,
being, it is said, even safer than mules.
They are also maintained at a trifling
expense, wanting, as is observed by
fiither Feuiil^e, "neither bit nor saddle ;
there is no need of oats to feed them ; it
is only necessary to unload them in the
evening, at the place where they are -to
rest for the night ; they go abroad into the
country to seek their own food, and, in
tlie morning, return, to have their baggage
replaced, and continue their journey."
They cannot cany more than from 100
to 150 pounds, at the rate of 12 or 15
miles a day. Like the camel, they lie
down to be loaded, and when they are
wearied, no blows will compel them to
proceed. In fact, one of their mat fiiults
IS the capriciousnesB of their disposition.
When provoked, thev have no other mode
of avenging themselves than by spittings
which &cuTty thef possess in an extraor-
dinary degree, being capable of ejecting
their saliva to a distance of several yards.
This is of a corroding quality, causing
some degree of irritation and itching^ If a

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LLAMA— LLAliEAOB.

ftOs on llie naked flkin. Bendes their
aeiTioes as beasts of burden, the llamas
afibrd Tarions articles of no sofiaU utility
to human fife. The flesh is considered very
wholesome and saroiT, especiaUy from
the young animal. Their wool, though
of a strong, disaneeable scent, is in great
request, especially among the native In-
dians, who emplov it in the manuforture
of Btuffii, rop^ bags and hats. Their
skins are of a very close texture, and were
formerly employed by tlie Peruvians for
soles ofshoes, and are much prized bv the
Spaniiuds for harness. The female llama
goes five or six months with young, and
produces one at a birth. The growth of
the young is very rapid ; being capable of
producing at three years of age, and be-
ginning to decay at about twelve. The
Uama is four feet and a half high, and not
more than six in length. He has a bunch
on his breast, which constantly exudes a
yellowish oil^ matter. His hair is lone
and soft ; his colors, various shades of
white, brown, &c The tail is rather
short, curved downwards. Tbc hoofs are
divided ; or, rather, the toes are elongated
forwanls, and tenninatcd by small homy
appendages, surrounding the Ust ]:>ha!anx
only, rounded above, and on either side
somewhat curved. There are several
specimens of the Uama in the differ-
ent menageries in Europe, where they
appear to thrive very well.

Lui^TEROs (fiiom Uano, plain)'; the in-
Iialntants of tlie plains, or Uanos (q. v.).
In this article, we speak more parlicu-
lariy of those in Venezuela. Tne im-
mense plains of Venezuela, which afford
excellent pasture for all kinds of flocks
and herds, are generally inhabited by con-
verted Indians or descendants of Indians
and whites, who are distiuffuished for activ-
ity, ferocity, ignorance and semi-barbarous
liairits, and are called LUmeros, From
childliood they are accustomed to catch
and mount wild horses, which roam by
hundreds over the savannas. When at war,
they are generally armed with a long lance,
and often have neither swords nor pistols.
Uniform is unknown among tiiem ; a few
mgs cover the upper part of their body ;
their pantaloons are broad and full, some-
what in the Bf ameluke style. Thev have
Uankets {manUu),aB is the case with most
Indians in habits of intercourse with
whites ; many of them have hammocks.
They are brave in d^endin^ their plains.
Tbeur manner of fighting is much like
that of the Goasacks ; they never attack
in regular flks, but disperse themselves
ID ereiy direction, rushing onward, flying,
3*

repeatedly attackkig and
ing the enemy. Paez, who was bom and
bred among them, and is in manners, lan-
guage and ferocity, a complete Llanero,
commanded them during the war of Co*
lombian independence, and is adored by
them. They choose their own ofitcers,
and dismiss them at pleasure. They
sufler no foreicners among them. As
they have played a conspicuous part in the
revolutions of Colombia, we subjoin the
description of them by colonel Hippisley,
which is corroborated by general Ducou-
dray Holstein,in his Memoirs of Simon Bol-
ivar. ** Sedeno's cavalry (Lktnenty* says
colonel Hippisley, ** were composed of all
sorts and sizes, some with siuddles, very
many of them without ; some with bits,
leather head-stalls and reins ; others with
rope lines, with a bite of the rope placed
over the tonnie of the horse as a bit ;
some with old pistols hung over the saddle
bow, either incased in tiger-dtin, or ox-
hide holster-pipes, or hanging by a thong of
hide, one on each side. As for the troop-
ers themselves, they were fix>m 13 to 46
years of age, of black, brown, sallow
complexions, according to the castes of
their parent& The adults wore coarse,
large mustachios, and short hair, either
woolly or black, according to their cli-
mate or descent They liM a ferocious,
savage look. They were mounted on
miserable, half-starved, jaded beasts, horses
or mules; some without trowsers, smaU
clothes, or any covering, except a bandage
of blue cloth or cotton rouna their loins,
the end of which, passing between their
legs, was fiistened to the girth, round the
waist; others with trowsers, but without
stockings, boots or shoes, and a spur gen-
erally gracing the heel of one side ; and
some wearing a kind of sandal made of
hide, witk the hair side outward. In
their left hand they hoM their reins, and
in their right a pole, fix)m eight to ten feet
in length, with an iron head, very sliarp at
the point and sides, and rather flat ; in
shape like our sergeants' halbert. A blanket
of about a yard square, with a hole, or
rather a slit, cut in the centre, through
which the wearer thrusts his head, falls
on each side of his shoulders, tlius cover-
ing his body, and leaving his bare arms at
perfect liberty to manage his horse, or
mule, and lance. Sometimes an old musket,
the barrel of which has been shortened 12
inches, forms his carbine, and a large sabre
or hanger, or cut and thrust, or even a
small sword, bancs by a leather thon^ to
his side. A flat hat, a tiger skin or high
cap^ coven his bead, tvitb ft nrhite featber

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LLAN£R08— LLOIUBNTE.

or a irhitio ng iKiMk into it" Thkme-
ture will remmd die reader of some or the
eavilfj wbieh Runia marcbed from lier
Aaiatic dominions uainst France in the
final strugp^e with Napoleon.

L1.ANO8 ; the name given in the northern
part of South America, particulari^ in
Colombia, to vast pbuns, almost entirely
IcTcl, and interrupted only by detached ele-
vationsy called-in Spanish, meMtf. The su-
peracid area of the Uanos is estimated at
296,800 square miles ; they extend from
the coast of Caracas to Guiana, and from
Merida to tiie mouth of the Orinoco and
the Amazons. A large portion of them is
sandy and without much vegetation, ex-
cept on^he banks of the rivers and durinr
inundations: some fim-palms are found!
When the inundations occur, the beasts
take refuge upon the .mMos. The Uanos
have been suppcNaed by some to have for-
meriy been the bottom of the sea. They
are distinguished into the (a.) Llano ofCo-
Jom&io, extending firom the mountains of
Caracas to the mouth of the Orinoco, and
to the mountains of St F6, and contain-
ing several meMU (de Amana, de Guani-
pa, de Paja, 50—65 feet in height), which,
in the rainy season, are covered with rich
verdure, and inhabited by herds and flocks
of all descriptiona— (6.) LUmo de Casor
ruare; a contmuation of the former, be-
tween the Orinoco, Meta and Sinaruca. —
(c.) Llano de & Juan ; very fertile, woody,
often so thickly overgrown, that it can
only be penetrated by means of the nu-
merous nvers ; lies on the southern bank
of the' Meta, reaching to the Amazons,
and was discovered in 1541, by Gonzalo
Ximenes Quesada.— ((f.) Llano of the
Jtnazons, or the Maranhon ; on botii sides
of the river, extendinff from the Andes to
die mouth of the Manmhon, over 2100
miles ; it is also wooded, and rich in
grass, entirely without stones,* and. inhab-
ited by many species of animals. The
inhabitants of these plains are called
Zdaneros (q. v.). Farther to the south, such
plains are called pampas (q. v.).

Llorxnte, don Juan Antonio, bom in
1756, near Calahorra, in Arra^on, author
of the first history of the Spanish inquisi-
tion, drawn from its own records, re-
ceived his education at Tarragona, enter-
ed the clerical order in 1770, received a
benefice at Calahorra, and, in 1779, by
means of a dispensation (as he was hardly
23 years old), was consecrated a» priest.
This, however, did not prevent him from
pursuing the study of the canon law,
while he devoted his leisure to the musea
At Itfadridy he was. attracted by the theatre,

and composed a sort of melo-dnaHiv tfie
Recruit of Galicia. A tr^pedy, entitled
Eric, the King of the Goths, was not rep-
resented, as it contained allusions to ex-
istingdifficulties at the court of Madrid.
In 1/89, he was made chief secretary to
the inquisition. Here he had an oppor-
tunity to learn from the archives of^the
tribunal the history of its shamefiil and
barbarous proceedines. In 1791, he was
sent back to his pariui, on suspicion of be-
ing attached to the principles of the
French revolution, and in spite of the
protection of the minister Florida Blanca,
who was an enlightened statesman. Here
he occupied himself actively in the sup-
port of emiffranf French priests ; and many
of these unfortunate men were indebted to
him alone for their subsistence. The man-
uscript of a history of the emigration of
the French priesthood, founded upon the
knowledge ootained from these aiMiuaint-
ances, and written in 1793^ was lost oy the
fault of the censors of the press. In the
mean time, don Manuel Abad la Sierra, an
enlightened man, was made grand inquis-
itor, who, intending to reform the admin-
istration of this tnbunal, employed Llo-
rente to prepare a plan for me purpose.
But, before it was completed, the removal
of Abad la Sierra was obtained by his
enemies. Some time after, the design was
taken up aeain at Madrid, and Lu>rente
repaired thither to submit the plan which
he had 2)repared in conjunction with the
bishop of Calahorra. Jovellanos (q. vA
minister of justice, supported them. It
was proposed to make the proceedings of
the tribunal of the inquisition public. AH
depended upon their obtaining the assist-
ance of the prince of peace, the fitvorite of
the queen. But Jovellanos was suddenly
removed fiom office, and the inquisition
remained as it was.* (See biqviiUion,)
Llorente soon felt its arm hiinsel£ His
correspondence was seized ; the most in-
nocent expressions were misinterpreted;
he was sentenced to a month's confine
ment in a monasteiy, and to pay. a fine of
50 ducats, and was removed from the ap-

*A French u1tra,Clau9el de Coassergues, having
publicly asserted that the inquisition had not
Durnl any person since 1680, Llorente, in his
Lettre ^ Mi Clausely SLC.fSur PLtqmtition <r£s.
pagne (Paris. 1817), proved, that from the year
1700 to 1808 alone, no less than 1578 persona
had perished at the stake by its means ! And
how long is it sbce this holy tribunal suffered the
body of general Miranda, who had died in their
dungeons, to be devoured by dogs, and buint a
German officer in effigv, because he had, during
the war under N^x>Ieon, translated a bool^
which, in Spain, was coasidered boeiical t

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LLOBENTE-LLOYD.

whidi be hdd in tbe Hdy
He lived in diagreee till 1805,
wben lui leputatioii caueed him to be re-
celled to Madrid to inveetigete some daiic
poiniB of histoiy. He wee then appointed
a canoD of tlie cathedral of Toledo in
1806^ and, in 1807, after he had proved
himeelf of noble descent, he was made a
knii^t of the order of don Carlos. In the
next year, when Napoleon undertook to
reflate the afidirs or Spain, Llorente re-
paired to Bayonne, at Jdurat's request, and
look part in organizing the new institu-
tians of his country, which, however,
could not take permanent root, as the cler-
gy saw in them the destruction of theu* au-
thori^. When Joseph Bonanarte entered
Madnd, in 1809, he chargea Llorente to
take poasession of the paperB of the inquisi-
tion, and of the buildings and archives
which were under the superintendence of
the general commandant of the place. In
1812, Llorente published a historical me-
mcnr on the inquisition, with the view of
fiedn|[the Spanish nation from the charge
of havmg ever been attached to this institu-
tion, and to the aiutos dafi, Llorente was
alfflolier ofking Joeeph,who nusde him, suo-
oeaavely, counsellor of state, commander
of the royal order of Spain, commissioner-
gaieral of theChoflufa. He followed Joseph
to Paris after the disastrous campaign of
the French in Rusna, and in 1615 hiui the
intention of accompanymg him to the U.
States; but, remaining to take leave of
his fionily, he was induced to eive up the
plan. In 1817, he published his history
of the inquisition in Spain, in Freich — a
wcttk which vms soon translated into most
European languages, and which has be-
come a historical source. An abrids-
TnaA has been published by Leonard Gd-
lois. When the old authorities were re-
8ioffed,he was obliged toftee. Banished
fiom his country, deprived of his property
and of his fine library, Llorente lived in
France, after the down&li ^f tbe French
party in Spain, in indigence. But the hatred
of the illiberal party arose, at last, to such
a height, that the university of Paris for-
bade him from teaching the Spanish
language in the boarding-schools, which
had b^n his only means of support.
The rage of his enemies was raised to the
highest pitch by the publication of his
Pminats polUiquea des Popes, and the
old man was ordered, in the middle of
the winter of 1822, to leave Paris in three
da3rs, and France in the shortest pos-
fliUe time. He was not allowed to rest
one day, and died exhausted, a victim to
the peisecuti(»is of the nineteenth eentu-

ly, a ftfw dm after hfai aitival tai Madrid -
(Feb. 5, 1833). Daring hia resideDce in
France, he published his Mhiumt9 oaur
servir h VHuAoirt dt la lUwduHon iTff-
pagnty awe det Piiicet juttjfieatiiveSf under
the name of R. Nelleto (an anagram of
Llorente), in three volumes (Paris, 1815) —
a work of value, as illustrative of the events
of 1808, in Spain. He alao wrote a bio-
graphical account of himself {MHcia high-
grtUica de Don J. A. LhrtnU, Paris^ 1818),
and Afmsmos PoiUkos. The Ducunoi
sobre una Congtitueion rdigioBa was act-
ually written by an American,* but arrang-
ed and edited by Llorente. He also su-
perintended an edition of (Euvrts com-
plHes de BarihS/mii dt la$ Casas (Paris,
1822).

Llotd, Henry, a military ofticer and
eminent writer on tactics, bom in Wales,
in 1729, was the son ofla clergyman, who
instructed him in the mathematics and
classical literature. At the age of 17 he
went abroad, and he was present at the
battle of Fontenoy. He afterwards trav-
elled in Germany; and having resided
some years in Austria, he was appointed
aid-de-camp to marshal Lascy. tie was
gniduallv promoted, till, in 1760, he was
mtrusted with the command of a large
detachment of cavalry and inftmtry, des-
tined to observe the movements of the
Prussians. Lloyd executed this service
with great success ; but soon after resign-
ed his commission in disgust He was
then employed by the king of Prussia;
find dunng two campaigns, he acted as
aid-de-camp to prince Ferdinand of
Brunswick. After the peace of Huberts-
bur^, he travelled, till tne occurrence of
hostilities between Russia and Turkey,
when he oftered his services to Catharine
II, who made him a major-ffeneral. He
distinguished himself in 1774, at the siege
of Si&tria; and, subsequently, he had the
command of 30,000 men, in the war with
Sweden. At length, he left Russia, and
travelled in Italy, Spain and Portugal.
He visited general Eliott, at Gibraltar,
whence he proceeded to England. Hav-
ing made a survey of the coasts of the
country, he drew up a Memoir on the
Invasion and Defence of Great Britain,
which was published in 1798. He re-
tired, at lengtii, to Huy, in the Nether-
lands, where he died, June 19, 1783. Be-
sides the memoir, he was the author of
an Introduction to the Hlstoiy of the
War in Germany, between the King of
Prussia and tiie Empress-Queen (London,
1781, 2 vols., 4to.) ; and a Treatise on the
Compoeitiou of aifterem Armies, ancient

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LLOYD—PUBLIO L^AN.

iSJP mid modenL Then works have been
tnudated into French and German, and
Jomini made use of the Introduction for
I his TVaiU de$ Grandes On^ations MU-
tairu. Other works of Lloyd's are said
to have been bought up and suppressed
by the English government, and many of
his papers are said to have been taken
possession of, at his death, by a person
supposed to be an emissary of the English
ministry, amonff which were the Contmu-
ation of the History of the Seven Years'
War, and a History of the Wars in Flan-
ders. The truth, however, of these state-
ments seems douhtfiiL

Llotd, James, was bom in Boston, in
1769, graduated at Harvard college in
1787, and. on leaving college, entered the
couniing-bmise of Thomas Russell, whose
extensive foreign trade made it by far the
most suitable pUse in New England to
acquire a practical knowledse of business.
He vifflted Europe, and resided some time
in Rus^ about the ^ear 1792, and, a^r
a successful career m commerce, was
elected by the legislature of Massachusetts,
in 1808, a senator in congress. During
five years, and at a period of great party
excitement and national difficulty, Mr.
lioyd conducted himself with pru-
dence, intelligence, firmness and integrity.
Brought up in the school of Washington,
he kept the political maxims of that great
man always in view. When war was
declared against England in 1812, he op-
posed that measure more Grom a convic-
tion of our incompetent preparation, than
fix>m anv doubt of our ability to contend
successnilly when properly armed. His
speeches, on that memorable occasion, bear
ample tesdmony to this, as well as to his
warm attachment to his country, and soli-
citude for its naval and military fame. In
1822, the legislature of Massachusetts re-'
appointed him to the national senate.
During another period of five years that
he held his seat in that body, he added
to his previous reputation by a constant
application to business. For the greater
part of the time, he was chairman of two
important committees — that on commerce
and that on naval affairs ; a station that
obliged him to arrange the numerous
reports incidental to the current concerns
of each session. The invesdgations to
which he was led, in tlie discharge of
these duties, gave rise to several pamphlets,
which he published at different times.
The last of these was published Decem-
ber 30, 1826, at Boston, and entitled Re-
marks on the Report of the Committee of
Commerce of the Senate of the U. States^

March 31, 1826, on the British colonial
Intercourse. He died at New York in
1831.

liLOTn's CoFFEE-HouBK, Loudon, 4>a
the northern side of the royal exchange,
has long been celebrated as the resort of
eminent merchants, underwriters, insur-
ance brokers, &c As Lloyd's is one of
the most extensive and best known insur-
ance offices, the estimate of a vessel at
Lloyd's tends much to determine her char-
acter among merchants. The books kept
here contain an account of the arrival and
saiUng of vessels, and are remarkable fi>r
theur earlvinteUigence of maritime affiiirB.

Lloyd's List, a publication in which
the shippmg news received at Lloyd's
coffee-house is published, on account of
the extensive information contained in it,
is of great importance to merchants.

Loadstone. (See MagneL)

Loan, Public, is the name given to
money borrowed by the state. There
may occur cases which require expenses
for which the ordinary revenue of the
state is not sufficient. If, in such cases,
it is not possible to increase the usual
revenue by augmenting the taxes, 'with-
out great inconvenience to the natjon,
the state will find it advisable to borrow,
and to pay interest till it can discharge the
principal. If such loans are appropriated
to objects by which the means of produc-
tion are augmented, the state strengthen-
ed, and industry increased, they answer
the same purpose as those which an in-
dustrious tradesman makes in order to
enlar]|e and improve his business. If he
is successful, he will increase his property,
and the loan itself will afford the means
for repaying it This will be the case
also with the state, when it employs the
borrowed capital to open to the nation
increased means of profitable industry, by
facilitating its intercourae with other coun-
tries, giving security to its commerce, and
increasing its means of production. But
if the loans are expended in useless or
unfortunate wars, or in other unprofitable
ways, they diminish the means of labor or
enjoyment, and burthen the nation vrith
taxes to p|av the interest and discharge the
capital. The capitalists who aid in pro-
ducing, when Uiey lend their capital to
men of business, and receive their inter-
est fiY>m the proceeds of their capitals^
become uuproauctive subiects as soon as
they lend it to the state which expends it
uselesdy, for now they live on the prod-
ucts of'^the capitals of others, when be-
fore thev lived on the products of their
own» As loans, however, may become

Digitized by VjOOQIC

PUBUC LOAM— LOAHPA.

neoeamT to die Mate, the only quea-
tion ii| What k the most adTantaffeotis
me^od of making them? A chief dia-
tinction among loans is this— that the
government promises either the repay-
ment of the capital at a particular time, until
which it pays mterest, or reserves the liber-
ty to retam the capital, according to its own
pleasure, only paying interest regularly.
The first kind is Imble to occasion trouble
to the state, because the payment may
often fill! at an inconvenient time. The
payment of lai^^ sums, too, at a particular
jieriod, has this disadvantage, that the
nation, when the payment is to be
made, becomes destitute of ready money.
Therefore large loans are usually con-
tracted in such a way that the payment is
made, siiccesnvely, at many periods, or re-
miuns entirely indefinite. The last kind
of loans requires that the credit of the
state should be undoubted, and also that
large capitals should have been accumu-
late in the hands of many rich jseople,
wtio find their greatest advantage in dis-
pofling of them m loans. Where there is
a welffounded system of credit, statesmen
think it most advantageous to secure only
the regular payment of the stipulated in-
terest, but to leave the payment of the
capital at the pleasure of the state. This
is called the^ndtng' system, as far as fixed
iimds are assigned for the perpetual pay-
ment of the interest These perpetual
anmdtUSf as they are called, had their
origin in Endand, but have since been im-
inued in Holland, France, Russia, Austria,
and many other states. In order to pro-
vide for the redeeming of the capital, a
smking.fund (French, amortissement) is
established, together with the fund appro-
priated to tlie payment of the annuities.
This is procur^ by me^s of a tax large
enough to pay the annui^ as long as it
lasts, and to redeem, annually, a part of the
capital debt This sinking fund is in-
creased every year, if the annuities, annual-
hf redeemed are added to it (See Sinkr
mg FSauL) According to this method, the
Slate cannot be said, properly, to borrow
capita] ; it sells annuities, and fixes, at the
sake, the rate at which they may be redeem-
ed. They are commonly estimated at so
much per ceot. The government says — I
ofier you an annuity of three, four, five,
Ac per cent, redeemable at my pleasure.
How much win you give me fi>r it ? Ac-
eofdia^to the maiket rale of interest, and
the degree of credit which the state en-
joji^ the capitalisiB offer 50, 60, 70, 80, 90,
tot^ ^per cent The rinkinff fUnd aims to
^charge the debt, gradua%, by redeem-

ing, annually, port of the annuities, at tlit
market price. If the latter exceeds the
price for which it had sold its annuities it
will be obliged to redeem them with
loss ; but if it is less, it can redeem them
with gain. Another kind of loan is,
when the caf>italists pay 100 per cent at a
fixed rate of interest, the government re-
serving the right to^y the capital at any
convenient time. Suppose that the state,
when it wishes to borrow, is obliged lo
pay eight per cent, and that these stocks,
m the course of three years, should rise in '
the market 100 per cent above par ; the
state would easily find capitalists, who
would lend at the rate of four per cent
annuaUv, and with this it could redeem
the eight per cant stocks. If, therefore,
the state has reason to expect that the
price of the stocks will rise, its best plan
IS to receive a fixed capital sum at such a
rate of interest as it is obliged to give.
But if it fears that the interests or the
prices of the stocks will fall, it is for its
advantage to procure the necessary money
by the sale oi stocks at the market price,
because it may hope to redeem them at a
reduced rate. Sometimes premiums, or
the chances of a lottery, are employed to
stimulate reluctant capitalists, and some-
times even force. If a government must
have recourse to other means tlian Uiose
arising from the annuity or interest offered,
it is a certain sign that it enjoys but a fee-
ble credit, or tliat there is a want of capi-
tal. How fertile modem history is in loans
of eveiy kind, and into what an unhappy
situation many states have fellen, by reason
of them, is well known. In Austria, the
proprietors of the stocks have been forced,
several times, to advance further sums, to
avoid losing what they hod ahx^ady lent
(See JsTaJtumal Debt.)

LoANDA, or LoANDo, or St. Paul ds
LoANDA ; a city of Angola, in a province
of the same name, capital of the Portu-

Siese possessions in this part of Africa ;
ngitude 13° ^d' E.; latitude 8° 55" S.:
population, stated by Clarke at 5,000; by
Hassel at 18,000. It is pleasantly situated
on the declivity of a hill, near the sea-
coast, and the streets are vride and regular.
It covers a large extent of ground, but is
neither walled nor fortified. It is the seat
of a bishop, and contains three convents.
The pott is safe and spacious ; the coun-
try around pleasant ana fertile, abounding
in cattle, com and fiuits; provienons plen-
tiful and cheap ; but the water bad, and
must be bronght fh>m a neighboring river,
on an island opposite. The houses be-
longing to the Portuguese are built of

Digitized by VjOOQIC

iX>ANDA— LOBEIJA.

atone ; the houses of the oatiTes are mors
nameroafl^ but mean. The Jesuits officiate
as miestBy and preside over the schools.

LoANoo ; a country of Western Afiica,
of limits somewhat vague. The countiy
subject to the king of Loango extends
from the Zaire or Cougo^ on the south, to
cape St Catharine, a coast of upwards of
400 miles; but Loango proper occupies
only the middle pert, excluding Mayom-
ba on one side, and Malemba on the other.
The climate is described as fine ; rain of
rare occuirence, and never violent, but
dews abundant; the soil a red, stiff clay,
and veiy fertile, but little culdvated ; the
grains are manioc, maize, and a species
of pulse, called mtcmgen; the sugar-cane
grows to a great size; palm-trees are
abundant; also potatoea'nnd yams, and
the finest fiuits grow wild. Among the
animals are tiger-cats, ounces, hysBnas^
hares, and antelopes. The country is
thinly inhabited; the population is esd-
mated by De Grandprfe at 600,000. The
inhabitants are very indolent, and live in
the most fimple manner. Their houses
are formed of straw and junk, roofed with
palm leaves. The government is despot-
ic, and the dignity is transmitted only in
the female line. Almost the only object
for which Europeans resort to this coast
is the trade in slaves. While Loango was
in the height of its power, its i>ort was
almost the exclusive theatre of this trade.
The trade has of late much diminished.
(See Tuckey's Expedition to the Congo,)

LoAZf GO ; a«ity, and the capital of Loan-
go, on a river which forms a bay at its
mouth, about six miles fiiom the Atlantic ;
longitude, according to captain Tuckey,
nPWE.; laamde4°40'N. It is about
fi>ur miles in circuit, containing only
about 600 enclosures, in each of wliich
there is a number of cottages ; and the in-
habitants are computed at 15,000. The
land in the vicinity^is yery fertilcj and the
water excellent The entrance of the bay
is attended with some danger. The town
18 called also Lovcmgo^ Loangirij Bangcty
and Bucdi ; by the natives, Borai, or Booru

LoBAU, George Mouton, count, lieu-
tenant-general, and, in 1830, commander
of the national guards of Paris, one of
the pupils of the French revolution of
1789, and a distinguished actor in that of
July, 1830, was bom in 1770, and de-
signed for commercial pursuits. On the
invasion of France, in 1793, he entered
the military service, and obtained his first
promotion on the Rhine. Having serv-
ed with distinction In Italy, where he
was dangerously wounded, he was cre-

atedy If die firrt eoosui, Bonapeite^
general of brigade, and aflerwards accom-
panied the emperor in all his campaigns^
m the capedgr of aid. In 1807, he warn
wounded at Fiiedland, and {nomoted to
the rank of general of divisron. His bril-
liant services in Spain, in 1808, and in
Germany, obtained him Ins tide of count
(See Aipem.) Afler having served in the
Rusatau campaisn, he was made prisoner
in Dresden, in 1813, but set at libeit^ after
the abdicatk>n of Napoleon. He rejoined
the emperor during the hundred days,
was named peer of France, received the
command of^a diviaon, and distinguished
himself at Waterloo. On the second res-
toration of the Bourbons, count Lobou
was banished from the kin^om (se^
Louis XVIII\t and he resided m Belgium
till 1818, when he was allowed to return
to France. During the revolution of 1830,
he took an active part on the popular side,
and, when Lafayette resigned the command
of the national guards, was appointed (De-
cember 26) commander of those of Paris*

LoBEiiu, Vasco, author of the cele-
brated romance of AmaeUs de Gaul, was
born at Porta, in Portugal, in tlie four-
teenth centuiy. In 1386, he was knighted
on the fieki of batde, at AHubarrota, by
king Joam L He died at Elvas, where
he possessed an estate, in 1403. The
original of his celebrated romance was
preserved in the library of the duke of
Aveiro, who suffered for the conspiracy
against Joseph I ; but whether still m ex-
istence or not, IS doubtful. This romance
has been claimed for France, it having been
asserted that Lobeira was only a transla-
tor ; but doctor Southcy has succeeded in
refuting that pretension. (See Armdis,)

Lo'BEL, Martio de (Latinlz^, Lobdius\
was bom at lille, in 1538, studied medi-
cine at Montpellier, travelled through
Italy, Switzerland, Germany, became
physician to the prince of Orange, and
was, at a later period, invited to England,
as botanist, by king James. He died in
1616, at High^te, near London. His chief
works are Shrpium cuhersaria nova, with
engravings (London, 1570, folio ; several
times reprinted ; the last time, Frankfort,
1651, foho) ; Plantarum aeu ^irpium His"
toria cum Moersanorum VoLumine, with
engravings (Antwerp, 1576, folio ; in
Dutch, ibid, 1581) ; -/cone« Stirpium (Ant-,
werp, 1581, 4ta; also London, 1605,
4to.). Afler him, a genus of plants has
been called Lohe&u All the *4>^i^ <ure
poisonous; some veiy much so.

Lobeua; a genus of plants distinr
guished by the lahiate oorolki, and by

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LQBELIA-LOCH KATBINE.

faiimg the five stamens iiniiBd in die ibna
of a cylinJer, as in the opaoMnke. About
150 spedea are known, which are Hetba-
ceouB or fintescent, having aheinate kave^
and fiowera disposed in terminal racemes.
The juice in all is milky, and more or less
amd and caustic Among the species
inhaUting the U. States, the most re-
markable are the three following : — ^Tbe
2«. syMHtka is found in moist places
thiougnout the Middle and Westem states.
It grows to the height of three or four
ieet, and bears large and beautiful flowers^
of a fine blue color. It was, formerly, a
celebrated remedy with the aborigines,
and, as such, has been brought into no-
tice among medical practittonen ; but its
virtues have been overrated, and it is now
larely employed. It, however, possesses
diuretic properties. — ^The large scarlet
flowers of the L, eardmaU9j or cardinal
flower, are conspicuous in the low srounds,
and alon^ the banks of streams, uuough-
out the U. States. The brilliancy of the
flowers has rendered this plant a fevorite
in the European gardens, where it has
been cultivated for more than two centu-
ries. — ^The L. ifjflaiay or Indian tobacco,
is an upland plant, oft^ growing even in
cultivated grounds, from Canada to Caro-
lina. The flowers are very small, blue,
and are succeeded by inflated capsules.
It possesses emetic properties, and is an
acrid and dangerous plant It was em-
ployed asa medicine by thelDdians,and has,
of late, acquired some celebrity from being
used by a certain class of empirics.. Ten
other species oClobdia inhabit die U. States.
Lobster {astaeus). This well known
CTu^aceous aoimol has already been cur-
sorily mentioued under the head of Craw^
Juk (q. v.), and it was there inadvei^ntiy
stated, that the lobster, found on the Amer-
ican coast, was the A. ptmmanu^ or, in
other words, identical with the European
species. It was so considered by most
namralistS) until Blr. Say pointed out the
differences between them. (See Jourru
Acad. JVaLScLPkUad^ 1^165.) He terms
it A. marinus. Mr. Say ooserves that
Seba, however, was aware that. this Bpe-
cies was distinct from the European, and
figured it in his great work. They are
exceedingly alike, mough there are certain
traits of diflbreuce, sumcient to authorize
a senaration. The habits of the American
i^peaes are, as far as they have been ob-
serred, anaJogous to those of the ttavvma*
n». They are taken by means of |iots or
traps, ma(ie of strips or osiers, formed
somewhat like a mouse-trap, baited with
garisage, attached to a cord and buoy, and

by means of a weight The Eurh
pean lobster having been more studied by
naturalists, the following particulars re-
specting it have been obtained. Like the
crsbs, tiiey change their cnist annually.
Previous to this process, they appear
sick, languid and r^ess. They acquire
the new shell in about three or fi>ur days,
durinff which time, being perfecdy de-
fenceless, they become the prey, not
only of fish, but also of such of dieir
brethren as are not in the same condition.
It is difficult to conceive how thejpfare
able to draw the muscles of their claws
out of tiieir hard covering. The fisher-
men say, that during the pining state of
the animal, before casting its shell, the
limb becomes contracted to such a de-
gree as to be capable of being withdrawn
through the joints and narrow passage
near the body. Like all other crusta-
ceous animals, they only increase in size
whilst in a sofi state. The dreinnstance
of lobsters losing their claws on occasion
of thunder-claps, or the sound of cannon,
is well authenucated. The restoration of
claws lost thus, or from theu* frequent
combats with each other, in which the
vanquished party generally leaves one of
his limbs in his adversary's grasp, may be
readily observed, as the new limb seldom,
if ever, attains the size of the former.
These animals are so sensible to the shock
communicated to the fluid in which they
live, by the firing of cannon, that it is said
they wholly deserted New York bay,
fix>m this cause, during the war of inde-
pendence. In the water, they are veiy
rapid in their motions, and, when sud-
denly alarmed, can spring to a great dis-
tance. They attain tht/ir retreat in a rock
with surpriswg dexterity, tiurowing them-
selves into a passage barely sufficient to
permit their bodies to pass. They are
extremely prolific : doctor Baster says that
he counted 12,444 eggs under the tail of a
female lobster, besides those that remained
in the bo<ly uuprotruded. The female
deposits these eggs in the sand, where
they are soon hatched. ,

Loch ; the Scotch for lake.

Loch Katrine, or Catherine ; a
small lake of Scotland, in the county of
Perth, in the Grampian hills, celebrated
for the picturesque beauties of its shores.
It has t^come famous as the scene of the
Lady of the Lake. Boixleiiug on it are
the Trosachs, rough and stupendous
mountains, full of wildness and rude gran-
deur. The^cccss to the lake is through
a narrow pass, about half a mile in lengm,
'* Uie Trosachs' nigged jaws."

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LOCH LEVEN-LOCKE.

LocrXiEtxit. (See Leven,)

Locn LoMOivD ; a lake of Scotland, in
the coun^ of Ai^le. It communicates
with the Clyde by a riyer, which joins the
Clyde at Dumbarton, and is about 90 miles
long, and, in some parts, 8 or 9 broad,
and contains about 30 islands. This
beautiful lake is surrounded by hills and
mountains, and is celebrated for the
grand and picturesque sceneiy of its
shores. Its depth is various, in some
parts 100 fathoms. It abounds in trout.

Lock ; a well known instrument, used
for fastening doors, chests, &c., generally
opened by a key. The lock is reckoned
the master-piece in sraithery, a great deal
of art and delicacy being required in con-
triving and vaiying the wards, springs,
bolts, &C., and adjusting them to the
places where they are to be used, and to
the several occasions of using them. The
principle on which all locks depend, is the
application of a lever to an interior bolt,
hy means of a communication from with-
out ;' so that, by means of the latter, the
lever acts upon the bolt, and moves it in
such a manner as to secure the tid or door
from being opened by any pull or push
from without The security of locks, in
general, therefore, depends on the number
of impediments we can interpose betwixt
the lever (the key) and the bolt which
secures the door ; and these impediments
are well known by the name of tcardsy the
number and intricacy of which are sup-
posed to distinguish a good lock from a
bad one. If these wan£, however, do not,
in an effectual manner, preclude the ac-
cess of all other instruments besides the
proper key, it is still possible for a me-
chanic, of equal skill with the lockmaker,
to open it without the key, and thus to
elude the labor of the other. Various
complicated and difficult locks have been
constructed by Messrs. Bramah, Taylor,
Spears, and others. In a very ingenious
lock, invented by Mr. Perkins, 24 small
blocks of metal, of different sizes, are in-
troduced, corresponding to the letters of
the alphabeH Out of these, an indefinite
number of combinations may be made.
The person locking the door selects 'and
places the blocks necessary to spell a par-
ticular word, known only to himself, and
no othet person, even if in possession of
the key, can open the door, without a
knowledge of the same word.

Locks. When a canal changes from
one level to another of dlfiereut elevation,
the place where the change of level takes
place, is commanded by a lock. Locks
are tight, ohlong enclosures, in the bed of

the canal, fbmisbed with pStea at each
end, which separate the hidier from the
lower parts of the canal. When a boat
passes up the canal, the lower gates are
opened, and the boat glides into the lock,
after which the lower gates are shut. A
sluice, communicating with the upper part
of the canal, is then opened, and tlie lock
rapidly fills with water, elevating the boat
on its surface. When the lock is filled to
the highest water level, the upper gates
are opened, and the boMat, being now on
the level of the upper part of the canal,
passes on its way. The reverse of this
process is performed when the boat is
descending the canal. Locks are made
of stone or brick, sometimes of wood.
The gates are commoiilv double, resem-
bling folding doors. They meet each
other, in most instances, at an obtuse
angle, and the pressure of the water serves
to keep them firmly in contact Cast iron
gates are sometimes used in Eqgland,
curved in the form of a horizontal arch,
with their convex side opposed to the
water. In China; inclined planes are said
to be used instead of locks, along which
the boats are drawn up or let down. They
have also been used in Europe, and on the
Morris canal, in New Jersey.

Locke, John, one of^e most eminent
philosophers and valuable writers of his
age and country, was bom at Wrington,
in Somersetshire, Aug. 29, 1633. liis
father, who had been bred to the law
acted in the capacity of steward, or court-
keeper, to colonel Alexander Popham, by
whose interest, on the breaking out of ihe
civil war, he became a captain in the ser-
vice of parliament The subject of this
article was sent, at a proper age, to West-
miiftter school, whence he was elected, in
1651, to Christ-church college, Oxford.
Here he distinguished himself much by
his application and proficiency ; and, hav-
ing taken the degree of B. A. in 1655, and
of M. A. in 1658, ho applied himselfto tlie
study of physic. In the year 1664, he
accepted . an offer to go abroad, in tho
capacity of secretary to sir William Swan,
envoy fit)m Charles II to the elector of
Brandenburg, and other German princes ;
but he returned, in the course or a year,
and resumed his studies with renewed
ardor. In 1666, he was introduced to
lord Ashley, afterwards the celebrated
earl of Shaftesbury, to whom he libcame
essentially serviceable in his medical
capacity, and who formed so high an
opinion of his general powers, that he
prevailed upon him to take up bis resi-
dence in his house, and urged him to

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LOCKEL

t|>p]y hiB Mndlettopolidct and ptakmo^
phy. ^y his acqiuuntance with this ikh
Manan, Mr. Locke was introdaoed to the
duke of Bockingham, the earl of H»life'r^
and otheiBof the meet eminent penons of
their day. In 1668. at the request of the
earl and countess or Noithumberiand, he
accompanied them in a tour to France,
and, on his retuni, was employed by lord
Ashley» then chancellor of the exchequer,
in drawing up the Fundamental Constitu-
tioDS of Carolina. He also superintended
the education of that nobleman's son. In
167Q, he began to form the plan of his
Easay on the Human Understanding: and,
about the same tune, was made a ifeUow
of the royal soAety. In 1672, lord Ash-
ley, having been created eaii of Shailes-
bu^, and chancellor, appointed Mr. Locke
secretary of presentatious, which office,
however, he lost the 'following year, when
tbe earl was obliged to resign the seals.
Being still president of the Ixmrd of trade,
that nobleman then made Mr. Locke sec-
retaiy to the same ; but, the commission
beiog dissolved hi 1674, he lost that ap-
poiDcment'also. In the following vear, he
graduated as a bachelor of physic^ and,
being apprehendve of a consumption,
tr&veUed into France, and rended some
time at MontpeDier. In 1679, he returned
to England, at the request of the eail of
Shaftesbury, then again restored to power ;
and, in 1&2, when thaf^obleman was
obliged to retire to Holland, he accompa-
nied him in his exile. On the death of hia
patron, in that country, aware how much
he was disliked by the predominant artn-
traiy &ction at home, he chose to remain
abroad; and was, in consecjuence, accused
cf being the author of certam tracts against
the English government; and, although
diese were afterwards discovered to be the
work of another person, he was arbitrarily
ejected fom his studentship of Christ-
chwch, by the king's command. Thus
asohed, he continued abroad, nobly refus-
ing to accept a pardon, which the cele-
brated William Penn undertook to pro-
riire for him, expressing himself, like the
chancellor L'Hospital, m similar circum-
litaiices, ignorant of the crimes of which
he had been declared guilty. In 1(>^^5,
when Monmouth undertook his ill -con-
certed enterprise, the English envoy at the
Hague demanded the person of Mr. Locke,
and several othei's, which demand obliged
him to conceal himself for nearly a year ;
but, in 1G86, he again appeared in public,
and formed a literary society at Amster-
dam, in conjunction with Lamborch, Le-
ckrc and others. During the time of his
VOL. viii. 4

eooeeahneot, he also wrote his fifft Letter
oonceming Toleration, which was printed
at Gk>udiL m 1689, under the dtleof Epu*
toia de Ih^afU^kif and was rapidly
latfid inu^^B, French and £
At the revolmm, he returned to £n^
in the fleet which coiy^n^ the pnncese
of Orange, and, being d^Hted a sufierer
for the principies on which it was estab-
lished, ne was made a commissioner of
appeals, and was soon after gratified by
the establishment of toleration by law.
Ib 1090, he published his celebnitecl Easav
concerning Human Understanding, which
he had written in Holland. It was in-
stantly attacked bv various writers. It
was even proposed, at a meeting of the
heads of houses of the university of Ox-
ford, to formally censure and discourage
it; but nothing was finally resolved upon,
but that each master should endeavor to
prevent its bemg read in his college. Nei-
ther this, however, nor any other oppoaitiQn,
availed ; the reputation, both of the work
and of the autnor, increased throuchout
Europe ; and, besides bemg translated mto
French and Latin, it had reached a fourth
Endish edition, in 1700. In 1690, Locke
published his second Letter on Toleration ;
and, in the same year, a{)peared his two
Treatises on Government, m opposition to
the principles of sir Robert Filmer, and
of tne wnole passive-obedience schooL
He next wrote a pamphlet, entitled Some
Considerations of the Consequences of
lowering the Interest and Value of Honey
(1691, ^o.), which was followed by other
smaller pieces on the same subjecL In
1699, he published a third Letter on
Toleration, a^d, the following year, his
Thoughts concerning Education. In
1696, he was made a commissioner of
trade and ))lantations, and, in tJie same
year, publislied his Reasonableness of
Christianity, as deUvered in the Scriptures,
which being warmly attacked by doctor
Edwards, in his Socinianism Unmasked,
Locke followed, with a first and second
Vindication, in which he defended him-
self in a masterly manner. The use
n)ade by Toland, and other hititudinarian
writers,' of the prHmises laid down in the
Ksst'iy on the Human Understanding, at
length produced an opponent in the cele-
brated bishop Stillingfleet, who, in hifi
Defence of the Doctrine of the Trinity,
censured some passages in Lockers Essav ;
and a controversy arose, in which the
great reading and proficiency in ecclesias-
tical anti(iuitic8 of the prelate yielded, in
an ai'mimcntative contest, to the reasoning
powers of the philosopher. With his

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LOOUEL

puMicatiotM in dui coBCmnsnyy inuch
wen dndncuidied by mild&eM aad ar-
boiity, Locke retired nom the pven^ and,
hii asthmatic complaiii^|MBaflinffy he
reaigned bis postof com^^HIr of trade
and plantaticoB, obeenrin^Kat he could
not, in cogaainGi, hold a situation, to
which a conRerable aalny was attached,
without performinff the d uties of it From
this time, he lived wholly in retirement
where he applied hunself to the study of
Scripture ; while the sufTeriiigs incidental
to his disorders were materiaUy alleviated
by the kind attentions and agreeable con-
versation of lady Mashain, who was the
daughter of the learned doctor Cud worth,
and, for many years, his intimate fiiend.
J.<ocke continued nenriy two years in a
declining state, and at length expired in a
manner correspondent with his piety,
equanimity ana rectitude, Oct 28, 1704.
He was buried at Oates, where there is a
neat monument erected to his memory,
with a modest Latin inscription indited by
himselfl The moral, social and political
character of this eminent man, is sufS-
cientiy illustrated by the foregoing brief
account of his lifo and labors; and the ef-
fect of his writinji^ upon the opinions and
even fortunes ot mankind, is the best eu-
logium on his mental superiority. In the
opinion of doctor Reed, he gave the first
example in the English language, of writ-
ing on abstract sumects with simplicity
and perspicuity. No author has more
succMfuily pointed out the danger of
ambiguous words, and of having indistinct
notions on subjects of judgment and rea-
soning ; while his observations on the
various powers of the human understand-
ing, on tbp use and abuse of words, and
on the extent and limits of human knowl-
edge, are drawn from an attentive reflec-
tion on the operations of his own mind.
In order to study the human soul, he
went neither to ancient nor to modem
philosophers for advice, but, like Male-
branche, he turned within himself and,
after having long contemplated his own
mind, he gave his reflections to .the world.
Locke was a very acute thinker, and his '
labors will always be acknowledged with
gratitude, in the history of philosophy ; but,
at the same time, it must be remembered,
that, in attempting to analyze the human
soul, as an anatomist proceeds in investi-
gating a body, piece by piece, and to
derive aU ideas fixim experience, he has un-
intentionally supported materialism. His
declaration, that God, by his omnipotence,
can make matter capable of thinkiug, has
been considered dangerous in a religious

pont Oi view* Jauoutb 8Nat woiky lii0
Eanr od the Human undenMandiiigy
nHiioh he was 19 years in preparing owes
its ezisteDoe to a diqMUe^ at which he was
present, and wluch he perceived to reat
entirely on a verbal misundentanding;
and, considering this to be a oommoii
source of error, he was led to study the
origin of ideas, &c. The influence of this
work has rendered the empirical, philoao-
phy ceneral, in England and rranoe,
though, in both countnes, philosophers of
a different school have appeared. (See
Cousin,) Henry Lee and Norris (in Ox-
forrl) were amonff his eariiest opponenta.
In France, Jean Leclere (Clericus) distin-
guished himself particuftrly as a partisan
of Locke; and 'sGravesande spread his
philosophy, by compendiums, in Holland.
Amidst the improvements in metaphysical
studies, to which the Essay itself has main-
ly conduced, it will ever prove a valuable
guide in die acquirement of the science
of the human mind. His next great work,
his two Treatises on Government, was
opposed by the theorists of divine right
and pasnve obedience (see Legitimacy)^
and by writers of Jacobitical tendencies ;
but it upholds the great principles, which
may be deemed the constitutional doc-
trine of his country. It was a favorite
woric with the statesmen of the American
revolution, by whom it is conetantiy ap-
pealed to in tifeir constitutional arguments.
His Reasonableness of Christianity main-
tains, thaf there is nothing contained in
revealed reli^on inconsistent with reason,
and that it is only necessary to believe
that Jesus is the Messiah. His posthu-
mous works, also, have caused him to
be considered, bv some, as a Socinian.
Besides the works already mentioned,
Locke left several MSS. beliind him, from
which his executors, ar Peter King and
Mr. Anthony Collins, published, in 1706,
his Paraphrase and* Notes upon St Paul's
Episdes to the Galatians, Coiindrians,
Romans and Ephesians, with an Essay

?refixed for the Understanding of St
'aid's Epistles, by a reference to St
Paul himself. In 1706, the same parties
published Posthumous Works of Mr.
Locke (8vo.), comprising a Treatise on the
Conduct of the Understanding, an Exam-
ination of Malebrancfae's Opinion of see-
ing all Things in God. Ifh works
have been collected together, and fii- .
quenUy printed in 3 vols., folio, 4 vols.,
quarto, and, more lately, in 10 vols., 8vo.^
with a life prefixed, by Law, bishop of
Carlisle. Some unpublished MSS. yet
remain in possession of lord King, who

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LOGKE^-LOGOWynON.

gif«B to Ae jmblie mna» ifakiaUe
enalB in his Lin and ComspoDdettce
of JflriiD Locke (London, 1839).--See, abo,
8tewait% Philosophical Eoaaya.

LocKXR) a kind of box, or cheat, made
along the eode of a ship, to put or stow any
thinf in. — Shot lockers ; strong irarnes of
pfaiuc near the pump-well in we hold, in
wtdch the shot are put
LocKVAN. (See Lokman^ and FaUe.)
LocoMOTios. The arts of locomotion
are verv well described in Bigelow's
Technology (Boston, 1829), and the few
remaikB that follow are abridged from the
first part of the article. The chief obeta^
des which oppose locomotion, or change
of place, are grayity and fiiction, the last
of which is, in most cases, a consequence
of the fireL Gravity confines all terres-
trial bodies, asainst the suriace of the
earth, widi a force propoitionate to the
quantity of matter which composes them.
Most lands of mechanism, both natural
and artificial, winch assist locomotion, are
anangements for obviating the effrctsof
gravity and fiiction. Animals that walk,
obmte firiction by substituting points of
thdr bodies instead of large sur&ces, and
upon these pomts they turn, as upon cen-
tres, lor the length of each step, raising
themselves wholly or partly irom the
ground in successive ares, instead of
diawing themselves along the surface.
As the feet move in separate lines, the
body has also a lateral, vibratory motion.
A inan, in walking, puts down one foot
before the other is raised, but not in run-
ning. Quadrupeds, in walking, have three
feet upon the ground for most of the time;
in trocting, only two. Animals which
walk against grevity^ as the common fly,
the tree-toad, &c^ support themselves by
sucti<Mi, using cavities on the under side
of their feet, which they enlarge, at pleaa-
ore, till the pressure of the atmosphere
causes them to adhere. In other respects
theif locomotion is effected like that of
other walking animals. Birds peifonn
the motion of flying by striking the air
with the broad surface of their wings in a
downward and backward direction, thus
propelling the body upward and forward.
After each stroke, the wings are contract-
ed, or aligfady turned, to lessen their re-
■stenoe to the atmosphere, then raised,
and spread anew. The downward stroke
aln^ being more sudden than the upward,
■ more resisted by the atmosphere. The
ttnl of biids serves as a rudder to duect
the course upward or downward. When
a biid sails in the aur without moving the
» it m dooe in some cases by the ts-

fecity previoi^y i4M]uired, and aQ oliliiiQs
direetion of the wings upward ; in otb*
era^ by a gradual descent, with the winga
slightly turned, in an oblique direction,
downward. Fishes^ in swimming for-
ward, are propdled chiefly by strokes of
the tail, the extremity of which being bent
into an oblique position, propels the body
forward and laterally at the same time.
The lateral motion is corrected by the
next stroke, in the oppgaite dirBction»
while the forward course continues. Hie
fins serve pardy to assist in swimming ,
but chiefly to btdance the body, or keep it
upright ; for, the centre of gravity being
nearest the back, a fish turns over, when
it is dead or disabled.* Some other aquat-
ic animals, as leeches, swim with a sinu-
ous or undulating motion of the body, in
which several parts at once are made to
act obliquely against Uie water. Serpents,
in like manner, advance by means of the
winding or serpentine direction which
they give to their bodies, and by which a
succession of oblique forces are brought
to act against the ground. Sir Everand
Home b of opinion that serpents use their
ribs in the maimer of le^ and propel the
body forwards by bringmg the plates on
the under suriace of the iKHly to act, suc-
cessively, Uke feet against the ground.
This he deduces from the anatomy of
the animal, and from the movements
which he perceived in suflferinir a large
coluber to crawl over his hand. Soine
worms and larvae of slow motion, extend
a part of their body forwards, and draw
up the rest to overtake it, some perform-
ing this motion in a direct line, others in
curves. When land animals swim in
water, they are supported, because their
whole weight, with the lungs expanded
with air, is less than that of an equal bulk
of water. The head, however, or a part
of it, must be kept above water, to enable
the animal to breathe ; and to eflTect this,
and also to make progress in the water,
the lunbs are exerted, in succeaave im-

Eiilses, against tlie fluid. Quadrupeds and
irds swim with less eflfort than man, be-
cause the weight of the head, which is
carried above water, is, in them, a smaller
proportional part of the whole than it is
m man. All «>nimnlg are provided, by na-
ture, with organs of k>conK>tion best

* The swimminj^-bladdery which exists m most
fishes, though DOt in all, is sapposed to have sa
agency in adapting the specific gravity of the
fisn to the paiiicouir depth in which it resides.
llw power of the animal to rise or sink, by al-
tering the dimensions of this organ, has besa,
with sons reason, dispoted.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LOCOMOTION— LOCUST.

adttitad to their Bmietaie- and atiutioD;
and it is {Hobable that no animal, noan
not beinff excepted, can exert his strength
more aavantageously by anv other than
the natural m<Me, in moving himself over
the common surfiice of the ground.*
Thus walking cars, velocipedes, Sic^ al-
though they may enable a man to increase
his velocity, in fevorable situations, for a
abort time, yet they actually require an in-
creased expenditure of power, for the
puipose of transporting the machine
made use o^ in addition to the weight
of the body. When, however, a great
additional load is to be transported with
the body, a man, or animal, may derive
much assistance from mechanical ananffe-
ments. For moving weights over the
common ground, with its onlinaiy asperi-
ties and inequalities of substance and
structure, no piece of inert mechanism is
80 &vorably adapted as the wheel-car-
riace. It was introduced into use in very
eany ages. Wheels diminish friction,
and also surmoimt obstacles or inequali-
ties of the road, vritb more advantage
than bodies of any other form, in their
place, could do. . The friction is dimin-
i^ed by transferring it from the sur&ce
of the ground to the centre of the wheel,
or, rather, to the place of contact between
the axletree ana the box of the wheel;
so that it is lessened by the mechanical
advantage of the lever, m the proportion
which the diameter of the axletree bears
to the diameter of the wheel The rub-
bing surfoces, also, being kept polished
and smcAred with some unctuous sub-
stance, are in the best possible condition
to resist friction. In like manner, the
common obstacles that present themselves
in the public roads, are surmounted by a
wheel with peculiar fiicility. As soon as
the wheel strikes against a stone or simi-
lar hard body, it is converted into a lever
for lifting the load over the resisting ob-
ject If an obstacle eight or ten inches in
height were presented to the body of a
carriage unprovided vrith wheels, it would
stop its progress, or subject it to such vio-
lence as would endanger its safety. But
by the action of a wheel, the load is lifted,
and its centre of gravity passes over in
the direction of an easy are, the obstacle
fiunishing the fulcrum on which the lever
acts. Rollers placed under a heavy body di-
minish the friction in a greater degree than
wheels, provided they are true spheres or
cyUnders, without any axis on which they

* This remaik, of coane, does not apply to
shuatioiu in which friction is obviated, as upon
water, ice, Fail-roads, dec.

are constrained to move; buta^Biflrieal
n^ler occasions friction, whenever its
path deviates in the least from a straij^t
line. The mechanical advantages of &
wheel are propordonate to its size, and
thelarjperit is, the more effectually does
it dimmish the ordinary resistances. A
large v^eel will surmount stones and sim-
ilar obstacles better than a small one, since
the arm of the lever on which the force
acts is longer, and the cun'e described by
the centre of the load is the arc of a larger
circle, and, of course, the ascent is more
gradual and easy. In passing over holes,
ruts or excavations, also, a large wheel
sinks less than a small one, and conse-
quently occanons leas jolting and expend-
iture of power. The wear also of large
wheels is less than that of small opes, for
if we suppose a wheel to be diree feet in
diameter, it will turn round twice, while
one of six feet in diameter turns round
once ; so that its tire will come twice as
often in contact with the cround, and its

rkes will twice as often have to support
weight of the load. In practice, how-
ever, it is found necessary to confine the
size of wheels within certain limits, part-
ly because the materials used would make
wheels of ^reat dze heavy and cumber-
some, since the separate parts would ne-
cessarily be of large propordons to have
the requisite strength, and partly because
they would be disproportioned to the size
of the animals employed in drought, and

compel them to pull obliquely downwards,
and therefore to expend a part of their
force in acting against the ground.

Locomotive Engine is that which is
calculated to produce locomotion,or motion
from place to place, (See Steam^Engine,)

LocRis was a country of Middle
Greece, whose inhabitants, the Locrians,
were among the oldest Grecian people.
There were four brandies of them — ^the
Epicnemidian, the Opuntian, Ozolian,
and Epizephyrian Locrians. The last
were a colony from the OzoUan stock,
and lived in Lower Italy. Their capital,
Locri, was one of the most powerful,
splendid and wealthy cities of Magna
Gnecia.

Locust. The misapplication of popu-
lar appellations, and the mutations of en-
tomology, have introduced some confri-
sion in regard to the scientific names of
many insect& Our American deader are
)[x>pulariy known here both by the names
of harvulfy and locuH ; the latter term,
however, is incorrecdy applied. Under
the generic name loauta is included, fay
■evml modem entomologiBCs^ thedevoor-

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LOCUST.

_ of die eastem coodnent, and

die oomnioD groBtihoppen (as they are
here caUed] of our country. These ento-
mologiatB use the tenn ui nearly the same
senee as Linnsusy who affixed it to a
group of bis great genus gryUtu, which
ooDstitutes the genus gryBua proper of
Fabricius. The ffraashopper may be thus
chaiacterized. The wings and wing-cases
are applied obliquely to the aides of the
body iu repose ; the antennee are short,
and do not taper towards the ends ; the
feet have only three joints ; and the tail
is not furnished with a projecting oviduct,
or piercer, for the deposition of the eggai
These insects have the bind legs formed
for leaping, and the males produce a
acridulous sound, by scraping these legs
against their wing-cases. The female de-
posits her ' eggs in the earth, and the
young survive the winter in the larv»
state, concealed amonffthe decayed veg-
etatioa of the surface. They pass through
an imperfect metamorphosis, for both
larviB and pup® resemble, somewhat, the
]ierfect insects in form, are active, and take
food in the same way, but are destitute
of wings. In all stages, they are her-
bivorous, and sometimes do immense in-
Cr to vegetation. Our salt marshes har-
an innumerable host, which not un-
frecpiendy stripe them of every blade of
grass ; or, when a scanty crop is gathered
into the bam, the hay is so filled with the
putrescent carcasses of these grasshoppers,
or locusts, as to be highly ofiensive, and
totally unfit for forage. In some sections
of our country, they occasionally appear
in such numbera as to fill the air m
cknids, and wherever they alight they de-
vour every green thing in their path. It
is stated, on good aumority, that, more
than once, when they visited some parts
of New England, they not only ate up aU
the grass in the fields, but actually attack-
ed dothinff and fences to appease their
insatiable hunger. Some workmen, em-
pk>yed in raising the steeple of a church,
in Williarostown, Massachusetts, were,
while standing near the vane, covered by
them, and saw; at the same time, vast
swarms flying at a great height far above
their heads. These swarms are said to
return after a short migration, and perish
on the very grounds they have ravaged.
(See Dwight's Ihmds,) Many of these
insects are ornamented with various beau-
tiful colors, particularly on the wines,
which, however, in repose, are not visible,
being folded like a sm, and covered by
tfaeknig, narrow wing-cases. One oC the
JaifMt and most common Anmcan spe-
4*

dei is the locufto CaroKna of lAmmim,
It is about one inch and throe quarteiB in
length, and the wings are of a deep black
color, surrounded with a broad yellow
border. The most celebrated species of
grasshopper is xherryUuam^ratoriui (mi-
gratory locust). Of all ammals capable
of adding to the calamities of mankind,
by destroymff the vegetable products of
the earth, the migratory Iscusts would
seem to possess the most formidable pow^
ers of destruction. In Syria, Egypt, and
almost all the south of Asia, these insects
make their appearance in legions, and
carry desolation with them, in a few hours
changing the most fertile provinces mto
barren deserts, and darkening the air bv
their numbers. Happily for mankind,
this calamiQr is not fi^[uentiy repeated,
for it is the inevitable precursor of mmine,
and its horrible consequences. Xhe an-
nals of most of the southern Asiatic cli-^
mates are filled with accounts of the de-«
vastations produced by locusts. They
seldom visit Europe in such swarms,
though the^ are occasionally formidable
to the agriculturist Even when dead^
they are still productive of evil conse^
ouences, since the putrefaction which-arisea
from their inconceivable number, is so
great, that it is jusdy regarded as the
cause of some of'^thoee desolatmg pestin
lences which almost depopulate whole
districts of country. When' locusts thus
make their appearance, they are said to
have 1^ leader, whose flight they observe,
and to whose motions Uiey pay a strict
regard. We are told that nearlv as much
damage is occasioned by what they touch,
as by what they devour. Theu- bite is
thought to contaminate the plants, and
either to destroy or greatly weaken their
vegetation. Of the innumerable multi-*
tudes in which they occur, scarcely an
adequate conception can be formed. Ear^
row (TVooeb, &c.) states that, in Southern
Afiica, the whole surfiice of the ground
might literally be said to be covert with
them fi>r an area of 2(XX) square miles,
The water of a very wide river vraa
scarcely visible on account of the dead
carcasses that floated on the sur&ce^
When the larvae (for these are much more
voracious than the perfect insects^ are on a
march during the day, it is utterly imposn
sible to turn the dunection of die troop,
which is generally with the wind. In
some pans of the world, these insects are
used ror food. For this purpose, they are
caught in nets, and, wnen a sufficient
number is procured, they are roasted over
• atow&eiiQ ao earttvA Tenali txtt tbi

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LOCUST.

inrings and legi drop off; when thus pre-
paml, they are aud to taste like craw-
fish. Mr. Adaoaon (Vbyagt to Serugid)
says, however, that he would'willingly re-
sign whole annies of locusts for the mean-
est fish. The locust constituted a com-
mon food among the Jews, and Moses
has specified the difierent kinds which
they were permitted to eaL <* Even thes^
thou mayest eat ; the locust after his kind;
the bald locust afler his kind ; the beetle
after his kind ; and the grasshopper after
his kind." (I^m^. xi, v. ^.)

The popular term gra8$hopper is also
applied, and with more propriety, to in-
sects in another group or the gn^i — ^the
tettigonuB of Linnaeus [loeugla of Fabricius).
They are distinguished firom the locusts
of the preceding section, b^ their very
long, bnstle-shaped, or tapenng antennee,
and by having four joints to their feet,
and an ezserted oviduct The latter in-
strument often has the form of a 'curved
sword or sickle, and is used in prepariug
a hole,, and conveying the eggs to their
appropriate nidua oeneoth the soil. These
insects have lonff, sledder hind legs, form-
ed for leaping ; out the males do not play
with them against their wing-cases, for
the production of sounds. Their musical
organs consist of a pair of frames, within
each of which is stretched a transparent
membrane. These tabourets are affixed
to that part of the base of each wing-case
which taps on the top of the back, and
one lies direcdy over and in conu^ct with
the other ; so that, whenever the wing-
cases are opened and shut, the finmes
grate together, and, as often as the shuf^
fling motion is repeated, a grating sound
is produced. These musical grasshoppers
are usually of a green color, and are noc-
turnal in their habits. During the day-
time, they conceal themselves in the grass
or the foliage of trees ; but at night, they
quit their lurking places, and the joyous
male commences the song of love with
which he recreates his silent |)artner. It
would be well to restrict the popular ap-
pellation grasshoppers to these insects,
which have been distributed into several
modem genera. Two only need here be
mention^ viz. conocephtdus (Thunl)ei^),
[acridOf Kirby], including the feipecies
whose head terminates in front in a coni-
cal projection, and pterophyUa (Kirby),
whose head is obtu^ and not produced
infixmt The latter senus contains the
well-known insect, culed, fh)m its note,
kaiy-dH pierophyUa concava (hcitsta con-
awat Say). Its large, oblong-oval, concave
wing-cases, inwrap the abdomen, and

meet at«thdr edges above and b^w
somewhat like the two sides or valves of a
pea-pod. Perched on the topmost twiff
of a tree, the insect begins his noctum«d
call by separating, closing, and re-opening
his wing-cases. The friction of the ta-
bouret-frames upon each other, thrice,
produces three distinct notes, which is
the usual numl)er ; occasionally, only two
are given, when the wing-cases are mere-
ly opened and shut ouce. The mechan-
ism of these organs reverberates, and in-
creases the sound to such a deeree, that it
may he heard, in the stillness of the night,
at the distance of nearly a quarter of a
mile. At intervals of three or four min-
utes, he repeats his obstreperous babble,
while rival songsteis echo the notes, and
the woods resound with the call of ludy-
didy slu did, the live-long night The td&-
gonuB of Linnaeus, or ffrasshoppers above-
mentioned, are not to be confounded with
the insects referred to the modem genus
tetHgonia of Olivier, Lamarck and La-
treifle. The'fonner, with all the frylli of
Linnaeus, have jaws for masticatmg their
food, and belong to the order orthoptera ;
while the latter, with the cicada or Junr^
vest'fy (misnamed locust), have suctori-
ous tubes, for puncturing plants and im-
bibing their jui(^ and belonff to die order
omoptera. In the genus cicaaa, the anten-
nae are six-jointed ; there are three ocelli,
and the le^ are not adapted for leaping.
In tdtigoma, the antennae are three-joint-
ed ; there are only two ocelli, the thorax
is transverse, not produced behind, and
the legs are formed for leaping. To the
genus tettigonia (Olivier) may be referred
the minute insect which attacks the grape
vine, and injures it to a great extent by
noxious punctures, and the exhaustion of
its sap. When the leaves of this valua-
ble plant are agitated, the little tettigortUt
leap or fly from them in swarms. The
infested leaves soon become yellow, sickly,
and, losing their vitality, give to the plant,
in midsummer, the aspect it assumes, nat-
urally, at the approach of winter. On
turning up the leaves cautiously, the in-
sects will be seen busily employed upon
the under side, with their proboscis thrust
into the tender epidermis. These insects
pass through all their metamorphoses,
which are imperfect, upon the plant ; the
vringless larvae a^ pupae, having a gene-
ral resemblance to the perfect insects, feed
together in the same manner, and their
innumerable white cast skins will be
found adhering to every part of tho
kvves. This species survives the winter
in the jperfoct state, hybemating beneath

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LOCUST— LOCUST TREE.

mkka, mmiM, and amonff die roots €(f
mn. It may be called UHigoima viHs
(Uarris). It is, is lis peiiect atate, oeariy
oneteDdi of an inch long; of a straw
color, with two broad, scarlet bands across
the wing-cases, one at the base and the
odier on the middle, and the tlys of the
wing-casea are blackish^ — ^Tbe cicada iei"
Hgfmia (Fab.), popularly misnamed lociutj
and found in various parts of the world,
subsists on the leaves of trees and other
vegetable substances. These insects are
fiiinisbed with a hard proboscis, capable
of boring wood. They are well known
fiom the peculiar noise made by the
males. The instruments for this are sit-
uated on each side of the base of the ab-
domen, and each is covered by a kind of
cartUaginous lamina. The cavity which
contains theae is divided by a triangular
partition. Examined from its internal
side, each cell presents, anteriorly, a white
and plaited membrane, and below this, a
tense, thin, transparent lamina, tenned, by
Aeaumur, the mirror. Viewed £rom the
extemal side, there will be seen another
plaited membrane on each mde, which is
acted on by a powerful muscle, composed
of a great number of straight and parallel
fihrea ; this membrane is 3ie drum. The
muscles, in rapidly contracting and relax-
ing, act on this drum, and thus produce
the noise. It is said, that in some species,
in tropical climates, diis is very powerful.
Mr. smeathman speaks of some of these
insects^ whose notes can be heard at the
distance of half a mile. The most re-
markable species is the 17 years locust
(C aepiemdecim), so common, m particular
seasons, in some parts of the C. States.
These insects emerge from the ground
towards the end of April, and always dur-
ing the night. On their first coming out,
they are in the pupa state ; but the back
soon bursty and the perfect flv appears.
They begin to lay eg^ about the end of
May ; these are deposited in close Imes of
two inches long, m the tender twigs of
tree& As soon as the young attain theif
growth, in the grub state, they foil to the
ground, and vnSke their way two or three
Ket underneath the surface, in order to
undeigo their change into the pupa form.
Soon after attaining their last transforma-
tion, they are found in great numbers
over huge districts of country. They ap-
pear about every 17 years, though it is
lofjtdy probable, that the periods of their
retuni vary according to the heat of the
climate, and other circumstances. These
insects have been known to make their
appearance in tiie city of Phj^elphia in

Ph^ei

gnat niui^mi^ jMnetmii^ fiom uiaur
subtennanean resiaenoe, between the bricka
of a pavement. Notwithstanding the
usual idea, they are in no way iniurioua
to veffetation, except from the damage
done by the female m depositing her efga.
This insect is the fiivorite food of various
species of animala Immense numbera
are destroyed by the hog, before they
emerge fit>m the sround ; they are, also,
when in their pemct state, eafferlv de-
voured by squirrels. Some of me laiger
birds are also fond of them. The Indiana
likewise consider them as a delicate food
when fiied. In New Jersey, they have
been converted into soap. It is stated, on
good authority, that they never light on the
pine, nor does the female deposit her eggs
m this tribe of trees. There are many oth-
er species in the U. States, which have
been described by Mr. Say, in the Joum.
Acad. Nat ScL, Philadelpnia. (See Bar-
ton's Medical and PhfsicM Jovarnal, &c.)

Locust Irobinia pseudacacia). This
valuable and ornamental tree, which is so
frequently cultivated in the Atlantic States^
and which is highly prized in Europe,
grows wild in great profusion among the
Alleghany mountains, and throughout the
Western States, even to the borders of the
sandy plains which skirt the base of the
Rocky mountains. When in bloom, the
lar^ nendulous racemes of framnt,
white dowers, contrasting with the ught-
green foliage, produce a fine effect, and
give this tree a rank among the most or^
namental. The leaves are pinnate, and
the leaflets very thin and smooth. The
flowers, resembling in form those of the
pea, diffuse a delicious perfume, and are
succeeded by a flat pod. The branches
and younff stems are usually armed with
thoma The wood is compact, hard, ca-
pable of receiving a fine polish, and has
the valuable property of resisting decay
longer than almost any other. The color
is greenish-yellow, with brown streaks.
Locust-posts are consumed in enohnous
quantities, and are eveiy wherepreferred,
when diey can be obtained. This wood
is also very much employed in ship-build-
ing, in the upper ana lower parts of the
mine, together with the white and live
oaks and red cedar ; but it is difficult, in
^e Atlantic poits, to procure stocks of
sufficient dimensions. For tree-nails, it is
prefeired to aU other kinds of wood, as it
acquires extreme hardness with age, and
considerable quantities of these are annu-
ally exported to Great Britain. It is also
employed by turners, and, from its fine
grain and lustre, forms a yeiy good sub

Digiti

zed by Google

LOCUST TREE-*LOOL

•titata for boz^ The locuit grows veiy
impkUy, but, when cultivated in tiie Atlan-
tic states, it is found to be exceedingly lia-
ble to the attacks of an insect, which, by
boring into the wood in various direc-
tions, weakens the tree so much, that it is
easily broken by the wind. In various
parts of Europe, great attention has been
paid to the propagation of this tree, for
ornament as well as for its useful proper-
ties, and its cultivation is further encour-
aged by the absence of the destroying
iosect aibove-mentioned. The usual stat-
ure of the locust is 40 or 45 feet, but, in
the fertile regions of the south-west, it at-
tams much greater dimensions, sometimes
reaching die height of 80 feet, with a
trunk 4 feet in diameter.— The IL viseosOf
a smaller tree than the common locust,
from which it is distinguished by its rose-
colored flowers, and by having the young
branches covered with a viscous sub-
stance, is, in its natural state, confined to
the south-western parts of the Alleghany
mountains. It usually does not exceed
40 feet in height, with a trunk 13 inches
in diameter, and is a more ornamental
tree than even the preceding. The prop-
erties of the wood are very similar to
those of the common species, and it will
bear cultivation in the same climates. —
The R. hiapida is also a native of the
south-western ranges of the AUeghanies.
It is a lAnib with veiy hispid branches,
often cultivated in our gardens on account
of its veiy large and beautiful rose-colored
flowers, which, however, like those of the
R. vi9co8a^ are inodorous. — A fourth spe-
cies of robinia is sard to exist vridiin or
near the basin of the Red river, but, vrith
respect to its character, botanists are, at
present, entirely uninformed. This genus
IS thus peculiar to North America.

LoDER, Ferdinand Christian von, an
anatomist and philosophical pbyslcian,
and physician to the emperor of Russia,
was bom at Riga, 1753, and studied med-
icine at G6ttingen. In 1778, he took the
degree of doctor of medicine and surgeiy,
and was immediately appointed professor
in the medical faculty at Jena. He then
travelled two years in France, Holland
and England, and formed an acquaintance
with the most distinguished men of sci-
ence. In 1782, he returned to Jena,
where he established an anatomical the-
atre, a lying-in hospital, and a cabinet for
the natural sciences. He likevrise found-
ed a medico-chiraigical clinicum, in which
Hufeland and othera assisted. He then
became physician to the grand-duke of
Weimar, ahd delivered kcttiiee on several

bruicbeBofmedieiiM. In 1808; he entered
the Prussian service, and was q>pointed
ordinaiy professor of medicine in tne uni-
veraity of Halle. In 1806^ he declined an
invitation .to enter the service of the king
of Westphalia, to whom Halle then be-
longed, and went to St Petersburg. The
emperor Alexander appointed mm one
of his physicians in 1810, after he had
been raised to the dignity of a noble by
the king of Prussia. Loder setded in
Moscow ; in 181^ was charced with
making provision for the wounded ; and,
when the French occupied the city, he
established hospitals for 600 officera and
31,000 privates, in difierent towns, the di-
rection of which he held for eight months.
In 1813, the great militaiy hospital at
Moscow was intrusted to him ; out, in
1817, he resigned this trust, thou^ he
continued to be active in the service of
the hospitals. In 1818, he was employed
in instituting an anatomical theatre at
Moscow, at the expense of the imperial
treasuiy. Six days in the week, for ten
months in the year, he lectured in Latin,
besides devoting much of his time to the
church, the schools, the practice of medi-
cihe, and public aftairB. Besides his
translations of Park, Johnson, &c., and
many academical dissertations and pro-
grams in Latin, at Jena and Halle, he has
written AnatomiBehes Handbuch (2d edition,
Jena, 1800); AnfmgB^ndt der Medic
AnihropoU^rit una GenehiL ArzneiwisHfv-
achqften (3d edition, Weimar, 1800J ; Jour-
tud f&r die Chirurgte^ Geburtskmfe und
GenchtUcke Aarineikunde (vol 1 — 4, Jena,
1797—1804); TabtdtB Amdomiea (Latin
and German, Weimar, 1803); Mementa
AncdomuB hum. Corp, (1 vol, Moscow,
Riea and Leipsic, 1822); and other works.

Lodge. This word, with several sym-
bols and ceremonies, was taken from the
corporations of stone-cuttera and masons,
by the fiieemasons. The former called
the place where they assembled a lodge ;
and, in freemasonry, lodge signifies the
place of meeting; and hence that body of
masons, with necessary officers, &c., who
meet at such place. Each lodge is dis-
tinguished bv its particular name, with the
addition of the name of the place where it
holds its meeting. (For further informer
tion, see Masonry.)

LoDi, a well-built town, since 1814 the
chief town of the province of Lodi in the
govemmentof Lombardy,in the Lomber-
do- Venetian kingdom, lies on the Adda,
in a fertile teiritory; Ion. 9° 3V £.; let.
4SP Id' N.; i>opulation, 17,800. The
biahopriiyfteubject to the archbiahop of

opriiy|0i;

Digitized by VjOOQIC

iX>DI-*LOG.

MHaiL The town contairw a itrong dta-
dd. Tlie celebrated Panneaan cheeae la
made, not at Pamia, but at and wheat the
town of Lodi alone, and k considered the
beat m Italy. The manaftcturea of eaith*
en ware are abo cetebrated. It was at
this plaee that general Bonaparte gained
the fiimoua victory, May 10, 1796, over
the Auscriana, under Beaulieu. They had
paaaed the Adda, evacuated Lodi, and
taken a very atrong position, defended by
SO pieces of cannon, which could be ap-
proached only by a narrow bridge over the
Adda. Bonaparte formed a part of hia
foroea into a close column, brought his
whole ardlleiT into play, and charged at a
quick step. The slaughter was dreadful,
as the Austrian artillery swept down whole
ranks at once on the bridge. The French
wavered ; but, at this critical moment, the
French generals Berthier, Mass^na, Cer-
voni, Lannes, &c., placed themselves at
the head of the column, forced their way
ov€T die Inridge, and took the Austrian
batteries. The Austriaos fought bravely ;
both armies struggled vrith the greatest
obstinacy, and victory long remamed in
suspense, till the division of Augereau
came up, and decided the fete of the bat-
tle. The Austrians, driven from their
port, lost a part of their artillery and over
9000 men ; but Beaulieu saved the honor
of the Austrian arms by a retreat conduct-
ed with coolness. The French loss was
not less. If they did not lose 4000 men,
as the Austrians stated, they certainly lost
more than 2000, which was their own ac-
count Men of science have censured
both generals, — ^Bonaparte, for taking a post
with an immense sacrifice, of which, say
they, he might have been master, in 24
hours more, with comparative ease ; and
Beaulieu, for having evacuated the town
of Lodi in such haste, as to neglect break-
ing down the bridge, by which alone the
enemy could approach his position ; but
it is idle to dispute with Raphael about
per^iecdve. Lodi remains one of the most
striking military achievements of Napole-
on ; not merely from the personal courage
which he displayed, but nom the boldness
with which the action was planned, and the
eneigy with which it was executed. At
Lodi, Bonaparte received the title of petit
etfond (little corporal). (See Thiers's lEs-
Unrt de la RhoiutUm Francaiu (vol. 8th) ;
Botta's lEsUnrt de VBalie de 1789 h 1814.)
Loo; a machine used to measure the
rate of a ship's velocity through the water.
For this purpose, there tare several inven-
tiooa^ but the one most generally used is
the fi^wing, called the common log. It

10 a piece of thin board, fbnmnff the qaad-
lant of a circle of about six inchea ndhm,
and balanced by a small plate of lead,
nailed on the circular part, so as to awim
perpendiculariy in the water, with the
ffreater part immersed. The log-line is
nstened to the k>g by means of two lega,
one of which is dotted, through a hole at
one comer, while the other is attached to
a pin, fixed in a hole at the other comer,
so as to draw out occasionally. The log-
line, being divided into certain spaces,
which are in proportion to an equal num-
ber of geographical miles,* as a half or
quarter minute is to an hour of time, is
wound about a reel. The whole is em-
ployed to measure the ship's head-way in
the following manner: The reel being
held by one man, and the half-minute
glass by another, the mate of the watch
nxes the pin, and throws the log over the
stern, which, swimming perpendicularly,
feels an immediate resistance, and is con-
sidered as fixed, the line being slackened
over the stem, to prevent the pin coming
out The knots are measured from a mars
on the line, at the distance of 12 or 15 &th-
oms f]t>m the log. The glass is therefi>re
turned at the instant that the mark passes
over the stem ; and, as soon as the sand in
the glass has mn out, the line is stopped.
The Mrater, then being on the log, dislod^
the pin, so that the board, now presentmg
only its edge to the water, is eaaly drawn
aboard. The number of knots and fiith-
oms which had run off at the exfHration
of the glass, determines the ship's velocity.
The half-minute glass, and divisions on
the line, should be frequently measured, to
determine any variation in either of them,
and to make allowance accordingly. If
the glass mns 30 seconds, the distance
between the knots should be 50 feeL
When it runs more or less, it should there-
fore be corrected by the following analogy :
As 30 is to 50, so is the number of seconds
of the glass to the distance between the
knots upon the line. As the heat or moist-
ure of the weather has oflen a considerable
effect on the glass, so as to make it run
slower or faster, it should be flrequently
tried by the vibration of a pendulum. As
many accidents attend a ship durinff a day's
flailing, such as the variableness of winds,
the dm*erent quantitv of sail carried, &C., it
will be necessary to heave the log at every
alteration, and even if no alteration be per-
ceptible, yet it ought to be constandy heav-
ed. The inventor of this simple but valu-
able device is not known, ojkd no mention
of it occura till the year 1607^ in an East
India voyage^ pdblidied by Puiclia&

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LOG-BOARD-LOOAN.

Loa-BoAB»{ two boards shutting to-
gether like a book^jcid divided into sev-
eral columns, contiuoliig the houis of the
day and night, the direction of the winds,
and the course of the sliip, with all tiie
material occurrences that happen during
the 24 hours, or from noon to noon, to-
gether with the latitude by observation.
From this table, the officers woriL the
ship's wav, and compile their journals.
The whole, being written with chalk, is
rubbed out every day at noon.

LoG-BooK ; a. book into which the
contents of the log-board is daily trsuQ-
scribed at noon, together with every cir-
cumstance, deserving notice, that may hap-
, pen to the ship, or within her cognizance,
either at sea, or in a harbor, £c The
intermediate divisions or watches of a
log-book, containing Ifbur hours each, are
usually signed by the commanding officer
thereof in ships of war or East Indiamen.

Loo-Line; the line which is &stened
to the log (q. v.).

LooAN, James ; born at Lurgan, in Ire-
land, Oct 20,. 1674, of Scottish parents.
At the age of 13 years, having learned
Latin, Greek, and some Hebrew, he was
put apprentice to a liuen-draper in Dublin ;
but, the country being involved m much
confusion by the war of the revolution
(1688), he returned to his parents, at Bris-
tol, in Endand, where he devoted all the
time which he could command to the im-
provement of his mind. In his 16th year,
having happily met with a small book on
piathemaucs, he made himself master of
It vrithout any manner of instruction.
Having, also, further improved himself in
the Greek and Hebrew, he acquired the
French, Italian and Spanish languages.
He was engaged in a trade between Dub-
lin and Bristol, when Willian Penn made
proposals to him to accompany him to
Pennsylvania, as his secretary, which he
accepted, and landed, with the proprietor,
in Philadelphia, in the begmning of De-
cember, 1699. In less than two years,
William Penn returned to England, and
left his secretary invested with many im-
portant offices, which be discharged with
fidelity and judgment He fifled the
offices of provincial secretary, commis-
sioner of property, cMefjustice, and, upon
the demise of governor Ubrdon, governed
the province for two years as president of
the council He had, for a long time,
earnestly solicited from the proprietary
family a release fiom the fatiguing care of
theur business ; but, even after this release,
he was constantly consulted and appeal-
ed to m difficult. And the quiet and

good govemment of the ptovinoe, Ibr m
number of yeaia^ was due to his prudence
and experience. He lived about 20 yeavp
at Stdlton, enjoying literary leisure, cor-
responding with enunent men in various
countries, and engaged in coUecdng that
library which he bequeathed to the pub-
lic. He was ajso the author of sevend
learned works. His Ej^erimenia MdeU-
mala dt PtaiUarum GeneraHone entitles its
author to be ranked among the earliest un
pfovers of botany. It was written in 17:19
He corresponded with the great Swedish
botanist The aborigines, of whose rela-
tions with the government of Pennsfylvania
he had the chief management, paid an af-
fecting tribute to his worth, when, in his
old age, ihey entreated his attendance, on
their behalf, at a treaty held in Philadel-
phia, 1742, where they publicly testified
oy their chief, Cannaasatego, their satis-
faction for his services, calling him a wise
and good man, and expressing their hope
that, when his soul ascended to God, one
just like him might be found for the good
of the province, and their benefit .He
was a man of uncommon natural and ac-
quired abilities, of great wisdom, modera-
tion and prudence ; well acquainted with
the world and mankind, as well as with
books; of unblemished morals, and in-
flexible integrity. He died at Stenton,
near Philadelphia, Oct 31, 1751, having
just completed his 77th year.

LooAN, GeoTffe, doctor, son of William
and grandson of James Logan, was bom
at Stenton, near Philadelphia, Sept 9,
1753. He was sent to England for his
education when very youns, and, on his
return, served an apprenticeship with John
Reynolds, merchant of Philadelphia. He
had early a great deshxs to smdy medicine,
which he undertook after he had attained
the years of manhood. After spending
three yeare at the medical school of Eld-
inburgh, he travelled through France, It-
aly, (^rmany and Holland, and returned
to his own country in 1779. Here he ap-
plied himself to agriculture with success,
and was one of the first who made exper-
iments with gypsum as a manure. He
was, m a few years, elected to the legisla-
ture, and served in several sessions. His
character, as a representative, was marked
by strict integriQT, and an adherence to
what he beUeved to be the public benefit
The pubhc mind being much agitated, on
account of the French revolution, and the
violent ascendency of party spirit, and the
nation stau^nff on the brink of a war with
France, he embarked for that country in
June, 1796, hi order to tiy to prevent such

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LOGAN— LOOARITHMB.

■Diane. For this step he wis denounced
as a pairicide to hie coontry, and loaded
with the utmost abuse. But be succeeded
in his intentions. Upon his arrival at
Hamburg, he found that all entrance into
the French territoiy was interdicted to
American citizens; yet, by the friendly
imerference of Lafayette in his &Yor, he
obtained a passport from the French ehaargi
d^qfatire$y and proceeded to Paris, where
he neaid that Elbridj^ Geny (q. v.), the
last of our commissioners, had left that
city for the U. States, that an embanro had
been laid on all our shipping in French
ports, that sevend hundreds of our sea-
men were confined in French prisons, and
that all negotiation was at an end. Find-
Ine that he could not get introduced to the
chief directdr, Merlin, then the highest
fonctionaiy in France, by means of Tal-
leyrand, — wbo,neveitheless, received doc-
tor Logan himself with courtier-like com-
placency, and used eveiy art to sound
what was his message or intentions, in
vain,— doctor Loean introduced himself
to M. Schimmeipennick, the Batavian
minister, who presented him to Merlin, by
whom he was veiy cordially received. In
the visits which he made him, he succeed-
ed in convincing the director of the im-
poHcy of the measures pursued by France
towards this country, and, finally, obtained
a decree, raising tjie embargo, and liberat-
ing our seamen, and giving, through the
American consul-general, assiininces to
our goveinraent that they desired to re-
new their former amity and ^friendship
with the U. States. He returned to the
U. States in 1798, and published, in the
Aurora of Jan. 12 (date of bis Letter to the
PobKcl 17U9, a justification of himself,
most decidedly repelling the charge of
having been sent to France by a fiiction,
&C. Directly afler his return, the law
fiuniliariy called LogdaCa law, was enacted
by congress, and a ne^tiation was en-
tered upon which termmated in a peace
with France. Mr. Logan sat in the sev-
enth and eighth congreflses, from Decem-
ber, 1801, to March, 1807, as senator from
Pennsylvania, and might have continued
knitter in that station, nut he declined a
reetection. In 1810, he visited Engkmd,
with the same philanthropic desire of |)re-
serving peace between the two countries.
Here, though be failed in effecting the good
which he had so much at heart, yet his re-
ception, by men of the highest respectability
of both parties, was highly flattering. He
was exceedingly prieved at the war which
followed. HisJtecdth gradually declined for
some years, and he died Apnl 9, 1821.

LooAEiTBiff (fiom the Greek >^tt
proportion, and i^^H, number). "Tlie
iO||farithms of numbers are the exponents
or the difierent powers to which a con-
stant number must be raised, in order to
be equal to those numbers ; the princi*
pies, therefore, which apply to exponents
m general, apply to logfuithms." To con-
stitute a logarithm, it is neceasaiy that the
exponent should refer to a system or se-
ries. These exponents, therefore, consti-
tute a series or numbers in arithmetical
proportion, corresponding to as many oth-
ers m geometrical proportion. Take, for
instance, the series 10'«10; 10»-=100;
10» — 1000; 10* — 10,000: then we
have the logarithm of 10«=1 ; logarithm,
100 «2 ; logarithm, 1000—3 ; logarithm,
10,000=4, &.C. Perhaps the definition
of a logarithm may be more scientifically
expressed thus : iMgarUkm is a mathemat-
ical term for a number by which the mag-
nitude of a certain numerical ratio is ex-
pressed in reference to a fundamental ra-
tio. The value of a ratio becomes known
to us by the comparison of two numbers,
imd is expressed oy a number called the
quotient of the ratio ; for instance, 12 : 4 is
expressed by 3, or 18:9 bv 2; 3 and 3
bemg caUed'the qwOienU of the two pro-
portions, 12:4 and 18:9. If we now
imagine a series of proportions, which
have all the same value or quotient, as,
for insuince, 1 to 3, 3 to 9, 9 to 27, 27 to
81, &c. (in which 9 and 3, 27 and 9, 81
and 27, are in the same ratio as 3 and 1),
and if we at the same time adopt the ratio
3 to 1, as the fundamental ratio (or the
unit of these mtiosV^then 9 to 1 is the
double of this ratio, 27 to 1 the triple, 81
to 1 the quadruple, and so on. The num-
beis 1, 2, 3, 4, which indicate the value of
such ratios, in i^espect to the fundamental
ratio, are called logarithms. If, therefore,
in this case, 1 is the logarithm of 3, !2
must be the k>garithm of 9, 3 of 27, 4 of
81, &c. If we adopt, however, the ratio
of 4 :1 as the fundamental one, and hence
1 as the logarithm of 4, then 2 would be
the logarithm of 16, 3 of 64, &c. The
logarithms of the numbers which lie be-
tween, must be fractions, and are to be
calculated and put in a table. A table of
logarithms, made according to an assumed
bifiis or fundamental ratio, of all numbers
to a certain limit, is called a logarithmic
sugtem. The most common, at present, is
tnat of Briggs, in which the fundamental
basis is 10 to 1 ; hence I is the logarithm
of 10, 2 of 100, 3 of 1000, 4 of 10,000,
&c. It is evident that all logarithms of
numbers between 1 and 10, must be more

Digitized by VjOOQIC

L06ARITHMS-L0QQE DI RAFFAELLO.

than 0> yet lem than 1« L e. a firaetion;
thuB the logarithm of 6 is a77815ia la
the same way, the logarithms of the num-
bera between 10 and 100 must be more
than 1, bat less than 2, &c ; thus the Ipgw
arithm of 05 is = 1.0777296. All loga-
rithms of the nambers between 0, 10, 100,
1000, &c, are arranged in tables, the use
of which, particularly in calculations with
kr^ numbers, is very great The process
is smipte and easy. If there are numbers
to be multiplied, we only have to add the
logarithms; if the numbers are to be di-
vided, the logarithms are merely to be
eabtracted; if nambers are to be raised
to powers, their logarithms are^^moltiplied ;
if roots are to be extracted, the logarithms
are merely to be divided by the exponent
of the root In a table of logarithms, the
integer figure is called the index or charao-
terisHc The decimals are called, by the
Germans and Italians, the mantiss<i. In
general, the logarithms of the system in
which 1 indicates 10, are called common or
Brig f 8*9 logarithms. The properties of
logarithms, and some of their uses, were
talen notice of by Stiefel or Stifelius, a
German clergyman, who wrote as early as
1530 ; but the use of them in trigonometrv
was discovered bv John Napier, a Scotch
baron, and made known by him in a work
published at Edinburgh, m 1614 Loga>
rithmic tables are of great value, not only
to mathematicians, but to all who have to
make calculations with large numbers.
The best logarithmical tables are those of
Vega (q. v.) and of Callet The former
are calculated with ten decimals.* Loga-
rithms are of incalculable importance in
trigonometrv and in astronomy. Vega's
edition of Vlacq*s tables contains a trl-
gpnoroetrical table of the common logap
rithms of the radius or log» sin. (ot.=
10.0000000, which gives the logarithms of
sines, arcs, co-sines, tangents, and co-tan-
gents for each second of the two first and
two last degrees, and for each ten seconds
of the rest of the quadrant Under Nar
pier's direction, B. Ursinius first eave the
logarithm of the sines of the angles from
10 to 10 seconds, the l^rithm of the
tangents, which are the differences of the
logarithms of each sine and co-siue, to-
gether with tlie natural sine for a radius
of 100,000,000 parts.* Kepler turned his
attention particularly upon the invention
of Napier, and gave a* new thee y and

♦ Logarithmic nn<i Trijjonometric TnMns have
lately been publifhcd by F. R. HafrVr (iVew
York, JRIfl)); and Mathematical Tablea. cr)mpri«itig
Logarithms of Niimbcrfi, &c. (Itosloii, I^TO). The
English Tables are too numeroas to meutiou.

new tablea Bnfgs was also conspieiioiis
in the construction of tables. Mercator
shows a new way for calculating the log-
arithms easily and accurately. Newton,
Leibnitz, Hsllev, Euler, UHulllier, and
others, perfected the system much, by ap-
plying to it the binomial theorem and dif-
ferential calculus. The names of Vlacq,
Sherwin, Gardiner, Hutton, Taylor, Callet,
and others, deserve to be honorably mei»-
tioned. The edition of Vlacq, within a
few years, by Vesa, is particularly valua-
ble. During the French revolution, when
all measures were founded on the decimal
division, new tables of the trigonometrical
lines and their logarithms became neces-
sary. The director of the bureau du cc^
tastre, M. Prony, was ordered, by govern-
ment, to have tables calculated, which
were to be not only extremely accurate,
but to exceed all other tables in magnitude.
This colossal work, for which me first
mathematicians supplied the formulas and
the methods for usmg the differences in
the calculations, was executed, but the
depreciation of the paper money pre-
vented its publication. The tables would
have occupied 1200 folio pagea {NoiM^s
sur lesgrandes Tables Logariihmiques et
TrigonometriqueSf caicuUs au Bureau du
Caidstre d Paris, an IX.)

LoGAV, Frederic, baron of; an epigram-
matist, bom in Silesia, 1604, and died in
1655l He early showed poetical talents,
but, at a later period, his avocations appear
to have prevented him from attempting
any large poems, and his poetical produc-
tions were confined to short pieces and
epigcama He published a selection of
200 epigrams, which were so well receiv-
ed, as to induce him (probably in 1654) to
publish a new collection of 3000^ A
contemporary of Opitz, he followed in
the steps of his ^eat predecessor, and
oflen expresses himself with as much
vigor. Many of his epigrams are original
and happy, and are the more striking as
this department has been little cultivated
by German writers. Logau is particu-
larly original in the gnome, and truly
poetical m a form which is now becoine
foreign to poetry. Ramler and Leabing,
who edited a coIlecUon of hia epigrams
in 17o9, revived h s reputation. After
Lessin^'s death, Ramler r publi&ied the
foliection, in 1' U. Select poems of
Logau are coi2tali. jd in W. i\r"*ilkr's Bib-
liothek deulsc/rr Dicntu dcj 17 JahrK
(Library of t > German Pixels of the
snventeenth Century, volume vi, Leipsic,
1&2A).

LooGE DI Ratfaello; part of the

DigiSed by Google

LOGGE Df EAFFAEtLOo-LOOf C

ToiieHi, and one of those bemtiftil loeiiei
to be found nowhere bat in Rome. Leo
X had tfaeee logge or arcades built
nadeat the direction of the immorlal Ra-
phael Theve are iht&e stories which en-
closeaeouitcaUed U CortUe di & Dama^
so. The middle story is the most cele-
brated. It is fiMPmed by thirteen arches,
and the vault of each contains four paint-
iugB in finusco, repres^iting scenes from
the Old Testament, and executed by
Giolto Romano, Pierin dal Vanu Pelle-
siino da Modena, Polidoro, and Maturino
da Camva^io, and others, after cartoons
prepared by the great Raphael himsel£
The number of these exquisite pictures is
fifty-two; the arches and pilasters are
adorned with grotesque pamtingB, exe-
cuted by Giovanni da Udine, so famous
io this branch, also under the direction of
Raphael

Looic {^vytKii, L e. hitmifin) ; the science
of tlie laws of thoueht,and the correct con-
nexioD of ideas. It is not certain, how-
ever, whether the name was derived orig-
inally from thought or from language^ be-
cause both mav be designated by Xdyitt,
1 e. reason and word. In German, this
science has also been called Denk'Lehrty
or Ventandea-Lehre (rule of thinkinff, or
rule of the understanding), because logic
strives to represent, in a scientific way,
those laws which the understanding is
bound to follow in thinkiuf, and with-
out the observance of which, no correct
conclusions are possible. Logic is valua-
ble, not only as a£S)rding rules for the
practical use of the understanding, but
also as a science preparatory to ail other
sciences, particularly mental philosophr,
as it aficsds tlie rules for giving scientinc
connexion to all knowledge, the laws of
thinking determining the character of
scientific arranxemenL But, inasmuch
as the laws of losic can only determine
the form of our knowledge, but can by
no means teach us how to obtain the ma-
tetials of knowledge, and gain a clear in-
sight into things (which is the business of
mentid vhUo9ophfj properly so called), in
so fiur logic has been, of late, separated
from inteUectual philosophv. But i^ as
is not unfinequendy done, all sciences are
divided into the historical (those which
proceed finom experience, as history,
natural philosophy, medicine, &c.) and
the phikieophical (the subjects of which
do not foil within the domain of expe-
rience), logic is a philosophical science,
because the laws of the connexion^ of
thouj^hts and ideas are founded in reason
itself and not in experience, and the sub-

VOL. VIII. 5

jeois of loM am, tbsMAn^ capable of a
demoostrstive certaiaqr beyond those of
any other philosophioal scaeoce. Logic
has not uiifim)uemly been overvaliied,
paiticuhurly by the ancient philosonbeni.
It should be always kept in mino, that
the most systematic order, alone, does not
render assertions trutli. The province
of logio has been enlarged or restricted
by different philosophers. Among the
ancients, logic was made to include the
deeper philosophical investigation of the
general characteristicsof truth, orthe essen-
tial conditions of the uruth of our knowl-
edge, which some modem pliiloBopheni
have referred to metaphysics. Logic may
be divided into the pure and the applied ;
the former treats of the general laws and
operations of thought (conceiving, judg-
ing, concluding), and their products
(notion, judgDient, conclusion). AppUed
logic treats of thought under particular
and special relatione^ which are to be
taken mto consideration in applying tlie
general laws of thought, viz. the connex-
ions of thought with other operations of
the mind, and the impediments and limi- '
tations which it thereby experiences, as,
also, the means of counteracting them.
For the first scientific freauuent of logic,
we are to look to the Gtreeks. Zeno of
Elea is called the father of logic and dia-
lectics; but it was then treat^ with par-
ticular referenoe to the art of dlsputauon,
and soon degenerated into the minister of
sophistry. The sophists and the Mega-
rean school (founded by Euclid of Mega-
n) greatiy developed tins art The latter,
therefore, became known under the name
of the heuriatic or diakciic school^ and is
famous for the invention of several soph-
isms. The first attempt to represent the
forms of thinking, in ohMtrado, on a wide
scale, and in a purely scientilic manner,
was made by Anstode. His lo^^cal writ-
ings were cadled, by later ages, orgcmon^
and for almost two thousand' veare after
him maintained authority in the schools
of the philosophers. His investigations
were directed, at the same time, to the cri-
terion of truth, in which path Epicurus,
Zeno, the founder of the stoic school,
Chryfflppus and othero followed him.
Loffic, or dialectics, enioyed great esteem
in bter times, particulariy in the middle
ages, so that it was considered ahnost as
tiie spring of all science, and was taught
as a hberal art firom the eighth centuiy.
The triumph of logic was the scholastic
philosophy (which was but a new form
of the ancient sophistxy) ; and theology^
particukrly, became filled with veibal

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L0GSC--L0G06.

BabtUdoL ^ymaadiim Lullin ■trove to
give logic anotnor fbmu The Bcbobfltics
were attacked bf CampaneHa, Gasaendiy
Peter Ramus {P%em de la Ramie^ Bacon
and otbera with well-ibanded objectiona.
Descartes and Malebranche again con-
founded logic and metaphyaics. Locke^
Leibnitz and Wol^ Tchirnhausen, Tho-
niasius, Cruaius, Ploucquet, Lambert (in
bis New Organon), Reimarua and others,
have rendered great service to modem
logic Kant, Fichte, Scfaelling, Hegel, have
maintained veiy various opinions on the
subject Whatelev's Treatise on Logic,
fint published in the EncycloptBdia Mdro-
pomtmoj and ranee in a separate volume,
IS one of the best treatises, in English, on
the subject.

LoGiER, John Bernard, descended from
a ^mily of French refugees, was bom in
1780, at Kaiserslautem m the Palatinate,
where his grandfather was organist His
father was appointed, in 1796, violinist in
the chapel of the elector of Hease-CasseL
When the subject of this article was ten
years old, he played the flute, then his
fiivorite instrament, at a public concert
His parents having died, his guardian en-
deavored to dissuule him from cultivating
music, and he aocepted the offer of an
Englishman to accompany him to Eng-
land, in 1805. De Gnffe instmcted him
on the piano-forte. He received an ap-
pointment in the band of a regiment, com-
posed several pieces for the band, and
gave instmction on the piano-forte, which
Jed to his attempts to simplify the manner
of teaching. He was appointed organist
in Westport, Ireland, the regiment having
been disbanded in consequence of peace.
Wiahing to teach his daughter, then seven
years old, to play the organ in his absence,
and finding her bond defy aU his endeav-
ors, he was led to think of some contriv-
ance for giving it the necessary flexibility.
The result was his valuable chiropUut
(former of the hand), which was com-
pletely successful. In 1814, be began to
teach his system more generally in Dub-
lin. In 1817, Mr. Lo^er went to London
to have his system examined by the phil-
harmonic society. Although the result
of the examination vras not favorable, the
system became veiy popular. In 1821,
the Prasnan government sent an agent to
London to inquire into its merits, and Mr.
Logier was soon after invited by the same
government to introduce it in' Beriin,
whither he went in ISZl, and, at die end
of five months, received an order fix)m
the kinpf to instmct twenty persons so that
they might spread his method throu^out

It was iiMnodneed into LeipaiCi
and many other places of Geimany. Its
peculiarity consists in giving oastnictkm
to many pupils at the same time, and,
though open to the objection to which
all svstems are exposed, that they cannot
produce genius, its success sufficiently
shows not only its practicability, but also
its advantl^|e8.

Logos (Greek, Xtfyof, firom \iyttv,to speak)
has a great variety of meanings: 1. lan-
guam speech in general ; hence, 2. every
mamiestation of the reason and under-
standing by language^ so that it has the
meanings of oration, eloquence, conver-
sation, address, also of the right and op-
portunity of speaking, &c. Lansuage
being peculiar to man, as a reasonabK to-
ing, and speech presupposing thouglity
lo^a signifies, 3. reason, the faculty of
thmkiog in general ; 4. every tiling which
is a production of tlie latter; as notions,
conceptions, demonstration, calculation,
explanation, condition and relation, nay,
even wisdom and logic. Thus logos has
the meaning both of ratio and gratio.*
In Christian teleology, the word X^yos, as
used in certain passages in the Scriptures,
has been the source of continual disputes
ever since the third centuiy of our era.
The passage in the Bible which chiefly
gives rise to this discussion, is the opening
of the gospel of St John : — ^ In the begin-
ning was the Word, and the Word was
with God, and the Word was God. Tlie
some viros in the beginning with God. All
things were made by him, and without him
was not any thing made that was made,"
&c In the Greek text, the expression here
translated Word (le verbtj das loortj &c.) is
Uyos. What is here to be understood by
Uyoif what is its essential character
whether it is a person of the Deity or not,
the creative intellect of God, or ^e Son,
through whom he created, or the divine
tmth which was to hp revealed, &c. — ^this
work is not the proper place to examine,
nor will our limits permit us even to enu-
merate the diflerent opinions which have
been entertained on this interesting point
of Christian metaphysics. We can refer
the reader to no better source of informa-
tion than the General History of Chris-
tianity and the Church (in German), by
Augustus Neander, Hamburg, 1827 et seq.

* A slight stody of cultivated laa^uagcs will
show how generally the word signifying speech^
or some word derived from the origual verb to
apeak f has acquired a very extended meaninr;
as t}ie Latin re«, from the Greek ^^ I speu,
Afyoc from Acyuv. Em€r and Debet, sisnifyinr
wrdf are the most generic terms in the Orients
languages.

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Loooa

— « woik of disdDffuiflhed research and im-
poitiality. The Roman Catholic doctrine
of the Xoyof {verhum) makes it a person,
and not a mere name, and maintains that
the Word is called God, not by catachre-
818, but in the strict and rigorous meaning
of the term ; that the most ancient Others
of the church always taught the divinity
of ibe Word, and that diey derived the
idea from the Holy Scriptures alone, and
not from the Platonic philosophy, as many
have asserted. For a view or th^ Catholic
doctrine, we must rejfer our readers to the
Catholic DictUmnaire de ThMogie (Tou-
louse, 1817), article Verbe, and to the
worics particularly devoted to this subject
Some of the opinions of modem theolo-
eians on the meaning of the logos are as
foflowB : — It is necessary, some say, in or-
der to understand the true meaning of
l^oij to begin with the examination of
99^, which was previously used. (See
the book of Prorero*, viii, 1 et seq., and the
book of fVisdom, vii, 82 et seq.) The po-
etical author of the Provem does not
imagine a peison separate from God, but
onlv an interior power of God, because,
in bis time, there could be no idea of a
being proceedinff from God, the Jews
havine borrowed this notion at a later
period from the Oriental doctrine of ema-
nations. The author of the book of Sirach
(xnv, 3) first uses Xdyo^ rs ea, as equivalent
to co^j to fflgnify die almighty power of
God. The Word being an act oi wisdom,
gave rise to the rjrmbol. John speaks of
the logos in the beginning of his gospel
only, and afterwards uses the expression *
KvOtta ri OtS. FroHi his representation, the
following positions have been deduced : —
the k^gos was (a.) from the beginning of
all things (comp. Proverbsfy'm, & ; Sirwh^
xxiv, 9) ; (6.) from the beginning with God
(comp. Sir, i, 1 ; Wisd. ix, 4, 9) ; (c.)
throuffh it the world was created {Prov.
SdL viii, 31 ; iStr. xxiv, 9) ; (d.) in the per-
son of Christ, the logos was manifested as
aman to the world (fftsd, SoL x, 16 ; ii, 14 ;
Sir, xxiv, 12). St John, therefore, say those
who thus Interpret him, had the same idea
ofthe2o)gw as the apociyphal writers; for
the circumstance tnat the latter ascribe
to the logos the creation of all things,
while St. John leaves this point unoe-
cided in his iv i^ Jfn, does not amount to
a contradiction. CHhers^ particulariy the
earfier commentator^ understand by logos,
the Deity himself that is, the second per-
son of the deity (according to St John viii,
58]b But those who adhere to the fomier
opmkm maintain that this is in contiadic-
tnitDJohnziVy98; zii, 4^-^ $ ▼, 10—

90; and that he underatood by lo^f, only
a power of God, which was communi-
cated to Jesus, on account of which he
could claim divine attributes, and yet call
the Father, as the source of this power,
greater than himself. Others, as Herder,
Paulus, Eckerman, understand by logos,
the Word of God (niH* IDI)* which,
in the Old Testament, as the expression
of the will of God, is the symbol of his
creative power ( Gtru i, et seqA The later
Jevrs also represented the divme omnipo-
tence by the toord of God, But it is
maintained, on the other hand, from the *
manner in which John speaks of the logos,
that he did not understand by it merely
the divine omnipotence. A similar ac-
count is ffiven of the creation by the
Word, in me religion of Zoroaster. Ac-
cording to Richter (Dtu ChrisUrUhwn und
dU &Uesten Rdigionen des Otierds), the
logos correspon<£ with the Indian Om,
the Persian Hanover, the Egyptian Kneph.
Others, following the fiithers of the church,
particularly Eusebius, undentand by logos
an independent substance, external fi^m
God, like the v9( of Plato. But this, again,
it is said, involves an error, because Plato
means by y9(, only a power of God. Still
others, as Mosheim, Schlegel, Jerusalem,
declare, with Ireneeus, the logos of St John
to be identical with the logos of the Gnos-
tics (q. v.) ; but it is object^, that John did
not conceive of a plurality, like that in
the doctrine of ceons. Lange considered
logos equivalent to the sophia of the Old
Testament, and that to the logos of Philo,
and as a distinct peison from God ; bu^
say the others, m^ta is not som#hing
distinct from God. Paulus, in his Com-
mentaiy, also identifies the logos of Phi-
lo with that of St. John. But it is said,
on the other hand, that John cannot be
supposed to have been acquainted with
Philo's notion, as it was not an opinion
commonly known at the time, and that
the view of the apocryphal writers is
more nmilar to his; moreover, that if
St John meant any thin^ more than an
original, eternal power m God, his Oak
Jlv would imply dualism. Others have
attempted grammatical explanationa D/^
derlein and Storr translated the word
X&yoi by dodnna, the abstract being put
for the concrete, dodrint for Uadtar, as
in Gtn. xlii, 88 ; 2 Sam. xxii, 23; Lukt
iv, 96. According to others, h Xdyof means
h Xsy^iuvot (the promised) ; but histoiy makes
no mention or Christians who still expect-
ed a Messiah. The ancient philosophers
often distinguish two logoses, an interior
in Qod or many wfakh merely tlunka

Digitized by VjOOQIC

L0G06— IX>IR£.

{^Syot MitfOcm ), and an ^terior or uttering

LoflTHiNe ; the legislative poition of
the Norwegian gUnihinf^y or diet As
soon as the king or his representative
has opened the seaaion, the storthing
choose one quarter of their members to
compose the logthing. The remaining
threo-fourtbs constitute the odeUithing, or
representatives of the landed property.
• These bodies conduct their deliberations
separately, and each chooses its own pres-
ident and secretaiy. Eveiy law is first
proposed in ^e odelsthing, either by its
own members or by the govemmeut
through a counsellor of state. If the
proposition is then accepted, it is then
sent to the logthing, who either accept or
reject it, at pleasure, in the latter case giv-
ing their reasons. These are considered
by the odelsthing, who either abandon the
proposed measure, or send it again, either
with or without alteration, to the logthing.
If the proposition is twice sent down by
the odelsthini^ to the other bouse, and is,
by them, twice rejected, the whole stor-
thing then assemble together, and the
queedon is decided by a vote of two thirds
of all the members. At least three days
must elapse between each of the conad-
erations. When a measure, proposed by
the odelsthing, has received the assent of
the other division of the assembly, or of
the whole storthing, a deputation from
both branches of the storthing is sent to
the kmg, or, in his absence, to the viceroy
orreffency, to obtain the ro3ral sanction
for me measure. The sessions of both
hoises are public, and their deliberations
are daily made known to the public by
means of the press. The members of the
logthing form, together with the highest
judiciaT authorities, the supreme court of
the kingdom, which decides on charges,
preferred bv the odelsthing, against the
members of the council of state, or of
the members of the superior courts, for
violation of their official duties, or mem-
bers of the storthing, for any offences
which they may have committed in that
capacity. In tins ^tribunal, the logthing
presides. Against a sentence pronounced
by this supreme tribunal, no pudon avails,

* Gothe, in his celebrated Faustus, makes use
of this passa^ of St. John to plunge Faustus
deeper mto his despondency. He endeavors to
translate Xiyot by word, mmd. power: nothing
jJU do I at last he chooses deed, and is satisfied.
Thoiwfa this agrees well enough with the^diarac-
ter ofthe hero, Uie poet ought to have considered
that if Faustus understood Oieek, he must have
knowa that XSyvg never means deed or anymaai-
*—- "^^i of tMMB by — '—

ezoepc in caaea where the poniahment as
death. (&ee Shrikmf.)

Loowoon. This important article of
commerce is the wood ofthe JuaiutUanfian
Campeckkmumf a small strag^ing tree, be-
longmg to the &niily [e^nmtnovce, which
grows wild, in moist places, along the
western shores of the gulf of Mexico.
From its abundance in some parts of the
bay of Campeachy, it is sometimes called
Campeachxhxoood, The leaves are pin-
nate ; thenowers small, yellowish, and dis-
posed in axillaiy racemes at the extremity
of the usually spinous branches. The
wood is red, tinged with orange and black,
so heav^ as to sink in water, and susceptible
of receiving a good polish ; but it is chiefly
employed in dyeing. The black and pur-
ple colors are very much used, but they
are not so permanent as some obtained
from other substances. Though culti-
vated to some extent in Jamaica, the log^
wood of commerce is chiefly obtained flroin
Honduras, where the cutting of it fomis
an extensive, but unhealthy, branch ofbusi-
ness. From Honduras it is exported in
great quantities to the U. States.

LoHENSTEiN, Daniel Caspar von, a
Grerman poet ofthe Silesian school, was
bom 1635, m Silesia, and died 1683, at
Breslau. He wrote a great deal, particu-
larly tragedies and comedies ; and we men-
tion him merely as a model of bad taste.
His bombast is pushed to the fiirthest ex-
travaffance, and, as an instance of aberra-
tion from taste, is not uninteresting in the
history of the human mind. I&s dra-
matic extravagamas are collected in his
TrawT' und LuutgedickU (Breslau, 1680,
1689 ;Leipsic, 1733).

Loir-and-Cher ; a department of
France, so called from the two rivers
which cross it; the former in the south
and the other in the north. (See

iOiRE (L!ger)j the largest river of
Fnmce, rises m the Cevennes, in the de-
partment ofthe Ard^che, and empties into
the Atlantic ocean below Nantes in Bre-
tagne. Its length is about 520 miles. It
is shallow in many places, but is naviga-
ble for large merchant ships to Nantes,
for smaller ones to Briaiie, and for boats
to Boanne. The levee upon the Loire is
one of die most stupendous works ia
France. It extends from Angers to Or-
leans, and was constructed to confine the
river within its banks, and to exclude the
waters from a tract of country which is said
formerly to have been a morass 100 miles
in length, and 30 or 40 in breadth. Its
boae is about 40 feet wide, and its elava.

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LOBUB-^LOLLL

ikn neariy 25 ftom the aiyoiiiing lerel ;
and its upper surftce, which is paved with
bige stones, is just capacious enough to
admit three carriages abreast By the
new division of France, since the revolu-
tion, three departments have received their
name from the river — the Loire, and the
Upper, and Lower Loire. In 1815, the
river became of historical importance.
The Frencb armv, which, after tne battle
of Waterloo, had fallen back to the vralls
of Paijs, having, by the terms of capitu-
lation made by the proviaionarY govern-
ment, retired without fiirther hostilities,
under the command of Davoust, beyond
the Lmre, it was called the army of the
Lorn,

Loire, Loire Upper, and Loire Low-
er ^ three French departmentBi (See Z>e-
partmtnL)

LoiRET ; a French department. (Bee
DcDortment.)

LoiZEROLLES, M. dc, WBS a barrister at
the time of the revolution, and was arrest-
ed, with his father, in 1793, on suspicion,
and conveyed with him to the prison of
Sl Lazare. On the 7th of Thermidor,
two days before the fall of Robespieirb,
the messengers of the revolutionaiy tribu-
nal arrived at the prison with a list of the
prisoners who were to be tried, and called
ibr Loizerolles, the son. The ^ounff man
was asleep, but tiie father, vnth a heroic
wish to sacrifice his life for the pres-
ervation of his son, allowed himself to be
taken to the Conciejqgerie, and appeared
before the judj^ The clerk, perceiving
the error in point of age, substituted the
name of Francis for John, the word &ther
for son, and tlie age of 61 for 22, and thus
the fiither wis led to the scaffold, though
no charse or crime was alleged against
him ! if. Loizerolles, junior, has since
celebrated this act of paternal affection in
a poem, in three cantos, with historical
notes (ISmo., 1813).

LoK. (See Mirlhtm Mjfiidiogy,)

LoKBCAN is a name that figtures in the
proverbs and traditions of the Arabians.
The period at which he lived is very dif-
ferendy stated, so that it is even doubtful
if there were not two of the same name at
different perioda. According to tradition,
Lokman was a scion from the stock of Ad,
and was once sent, with a earavan, from
iCthiopia to Mecca, to pr^ for rain in a
time orgreat drought But Qod's anger d^
stroyed the whole family of Ad, except
Loiunan, the only righteous one ; where^
upon the Creator ox the worid gave him
his chdce, to live as bng as the dung of
•ereo pzeUeii ^b>^ lay io w in MCo w i '

UeholeinamouiilaiD, ahould last, or for
a period equal to the lives of seven suc-
oeasive vtdturss. T<oirman chose the last,
and lived for an almost incalculable length
of time. There is also in the Koran an
account of a Lokman, sumamed ikt
wise; sometimes, also, called Mu-Anam^
or the father of the Anams. This one,
whether identical vrith the fbnner or not,
is not for us to determine, lived in Davids
time, and is represented as similar in many
respects to the Phiygian iEsop ; and the
Arabians have a great variety of Abies by
him, which, however, are formed upon
the model of those of ilBsop, and of which
the whole style and appearance are such,
that they cannot be referred to so eariy
a date as the first centuir of the Heginu
This person had, also, a life of remaricable
duration (according to some 300^ accord-
ing to othera 1000 yeara),wiiich coinci-
dence in the accounts of them affords cood
grounds for the conjecture, that the Lok-
man of the Koran, and the one whom tn*
dition ascribes to the race of Ad, are one
and the same peison, whose history, in
the course of aces, has been thus fiuicifiil-
\j adorned. The fiibles of Lokman were,
ror the first time, made known to Europe
through the press, by Erpenius, in 1615«
They were first published in Arabic, with
a Latin translation, were afterwards ap«
'nended to an Arabic grammar, published
by Erpenius, at Leyden, and have aince
gone through many editions, none of
which, however, are firee firom erron*
Among the Oriental nations, these &bles,
owing to their kiconic brevity and tasteless
dress, are held in litde respect, and, on
the whole, are not worthy of the reputa-^
tion which they have, fov a long time, suft«
tained with u& In 1799, during the occu^
pation of Egypt bjr the French, Marcel
superintended an emtion of Fableg de Lok-
man, at Cairo, which was republished in
Paris in 1803 ; but the best is that prepare
ed by Caussin, in 1818, for the use or the
pupils at the coUige royale. The editor
of Galland's translation of the Homa^
youn-Manehj or Fables of Biilpai, is mis^
taken in ascribing these Indian fables to
Lokman as well as Bidpai. The most
eomj^te manuscript of the fiibles of Lok">
man is in the libraiy of the Vatican, in Per^
nan.

LoLXJkRDs. (See £<yiiM6f, iVotcrmtief,
and OUeasOe.)

LoLLf, Antonio^ a celebrated violinist
bora 17!i^ or, according to some, 1740» at
Bemmo, in the Venetian teiritoiy. la
176S— 73; he was in the service of tlm
duke of W&rieiDbeK(^_ Bo afkerwanta

Digitized by VjOOQIC-

LOUJ--LOMfiA£IKHOUSE.

irent to Runia, and hto performance pfeas-
ed the emprees Catharine II so much, that
she presented him with a bow, on which
she had heiaelf written the words, ''This
lx»w, made by Catharine, with her own
hands, is intended for the unequalled LoUL"
In 1775, he travelled in England, France
and Spain. In Madrid, besides other per-
quintes, he received SOOO reals from the
director of the theatre for each concert
In 1789, be retunied to Italy, and died at
Naples, in 1794. LoUi endeavored to
unite the excellenoes of the schools of
Nardini and Ferrari. He had acquired
an astonislung focili^ on his instrument.
He WBS called the nvuaical rope-dancer.
None of his pnedecessors had attained
such perfection on the finger-board ; but,
at the same time, he lost himself in wild
and inegular phantasies, in which he often
neglect^ all tune,' so that the most prac-
tise player could not accompany him.
LoLHE, Db. (See De Lobne,)
Lombard-House, Lombard (mons
pietatisj mont de pUu)\ a public institu-
tion, at which every person, but especially
the poor, may obtain money for a short
time, at a modente rate of interest, on de-
positing sufficient pledges (pawnsl and
are thus saved from the necessity or hav-
ing recouTM to usurers. The chief dif-
ference between Lombards and pawn-
houses is, that the former are established
by public authority, for the relief of the
poor, while the latter are established by
private individuals, for their own profit
After a given time, the pawns, if not re-
deemed, are sold bv public auction, and
the surplus, aAer deducting interest and
costs, is given to the former owner ; or, if
he cannot be found, retained for him one
vear. If he does not then appear, the sum
IS given to charitable institutions. The
Lombard gives a certificate, skating the time
of deposit, the sum reoeived, the name of
the pawner, the article pawned, the page of
the book in which it is entered. The bearer
of this certificate may redeem the articles
within the time fixed, unless the owner has
apprized the Lombard that it was lost, &c.
The origin of these establish meiits has
been, with much probability, referred, by
Dorotheus Asciomus (L e. Ji|atthew Zim-
inennann, who died in 1639, and who was
superintendent in Meissen*), to the time
of pope Pius II or Paul II (1464—1471).
Barnabas Interamnensis, however, a Mi-
norite fiiar, established the first Lombard-
house in Perugia, in the States of the
Churcli, before 1464, or in that year,
* A sopenntendeot, m the north oT GermaiFy,
is aaqperiorBBDtefttant niinter.

though it did not receive pope Paul IPs
cou^mation before 1467. A lawyer in
Perugia, Fortunatus de Copolis, rendered
much assistance in the execution of the
plan. Another Lombard was soon after
erected in Orvieto. In 1472, Sixtus IV
confirmed one, established at Viterix), in
1469, by a Minorite, Franciscus de Viter-
bo, and, in 1479, another at Savona, his
native place. Lombards were thus grad-
ually established in almost all Italian cities
during the« fifieenth and sixteenth centu-
ries. (See Beckmann's Hisiory of hvoen-
Horn, voL iii, 3d part) The first Lombard
in Germany was established in Nuiem-
beiv, in 1498, with an imperial privilege.
In me Netherlands, France and England,
whither the rich Lombard merchants em-
igrated, on account of the struggles of the
Guelphs and Gibelines, they lent their
money for interest; whence such estab-
lishments were, and still are, called Lom-
bards. In some large cities of Europe,
the Lombards are veiy extensive, but do
not always attain the object for which
they were originally intended, as the fol-
lowing statement will prove. The follow-
ing statistical tables, relative to the mani de
pUU in Paris, framed by the prefect of the
Seine, are interesting, as they show that
there is a numerous class of persons who
can with difiiculty find the means of ex-
istence ; and that half of the inhabitants
of the capital are obliged to have recourse
to the pawn-broker, at some time of the
year, though they are forced topay usu-
rious interest In the year 1826, there
were 1,200,104 pledges of difiTerent arti-
cles, upon which the sum of 24,521,157
francs was lent The number of pledges
redeemed in the same year •amounted to
only 1,124,221, and tiie sum to 21,569,437
firancs; so that 75,883 remained at the
mofU ck piiU ; and there was in its hands
the sum of 2,^51,720 francs. As it is the
principle of the numi de pieli not to lend
more than about a quarter of the value
upon articles pledged, — ^though the law tor
its formation, dated in 1777, directs that
the borrower shall receive two-thirds of
the value of his pledge, — we may estimate
the value of the 75,883 unredeemed
pledges, updn wliich nearly 3,000,000 of
francs were lent, at 12,(Au,000. Suppos-
ing the sale of these articles to be efifected,
and all the reductions of excise, registry,
&>c^ made, there would be returned to the
proprietors of them the half of these
12,000,000. It would result, tiiat 6,000,000,
at least, are thus annually levied upon the
least affluent class of society— that which
i^proachesthepeaiest to the deacripticm

Digitized by VjOOQIC

L01IBAiU>*H0U8£-L0MBA]U[>Y.

<if pcnoDB for whom the iqMi for UMUk-
^axy were created. Independently of
cfaese 6,000,000, inevitably lost to the un-
fixtunAte boRowen, we must add the
intoest of 12 per cent per annum, taken
upon the 24y531,137 francs lent' by the
mmd dt pUU; that is to say, 2,9^,536
francs, adding nearly 3,000,000, which,
with tlie 6,000,000 akeady spoken o^
consdtute a total of 9,000,000. 9,000,000,
divided among 437,500 inhabitants, half
oi the 875,000 composing the entire popu-
lation of the capital, give 20 francs, 20
eemimes^ or, omitting dw fraction, 20 francs
for each inhabitant. In a fiiinily com-
posed of four peraons, the average will
then be nearlv 80 francs— an immense
sum for a &miiy which can with difficulty
procure daily necessaries !

LoMBAHD School. ^See RalUmAHj in
the article Jih%, and Pointing, Higtory qf.)

Lombard ^reet, a welE-known spot
in the ^pgantic metropolis of the British
empire, m situated in the city, and received
ilB name from haying been the residence
of the Lombards, the money-fenders of
ibnner times, whose usurious transacdons
caused their expulsion from the kingdom
in ifae reign of Elizabeth. It is now
chiefly occupied by bankers, and is a
place of much importance in the London
commercial world.

LOMBAKDS, LONOOBARDI, Or LaAOO-

BARDt Sonae derive the name from the
long hanU or spears, by which this nation
is said to have been distinguished from
the other northern tribes ; others from the
long strips of land {bcarde) which they in-
hamted, on both sides or the Elbe, from
LiAieburg to Magdeburg. They are gen-
erally considered a German tribe (but Pau-
lus Djaconus calls them Scandinavians),
of tht' tribe of the Hermiones or Suevi,
which dwelt below the Isteevones. Their
most ancient seats were on the east side
of tho Elbe, in the eastern parts of the
principalis of Luneburg, and in the Alt-
inariE, or meSardengau, so called, which,
most probably, takes its name from them.
Here Tiberius found them, on his expedi-
tk>n tr. the Elbe, and fought a battle with
them. Strabo narrates that Tiberius
strove them .hpyond the Elbe; but Vel-
leius Patercuros, who himself accompa-
nied ;he expedition, makes no mention of
it The Lombards afterwards appear in
the Marconumnic league, under filarobod-
uu8^ with whose despotism being dissat-
isfied, they concluded a league with the
ClieruscL They appear, at this time, to
have left their settlements on the Elbe,
9ad to have sppioacfaed nearer the Che-
5«

ruscL The latter tribe, htving been
weakened by a series of misfortunes, the
Lombards improved the opportunity to
spread themselves fruther, and humiliate
tne Cherusci, took possession of all their
settlements north or the Hartz mountains,
and became the most powerful of the na-
tions there. According to the accounts
of Ptolemy, they now spread between the
Weser and the Rhine, in the territories of
the former Angrivarii, Tubantes, Marsi
and Cherusci. They maintained them-
selves in these territories till the new
Fnukish confederacy, formed of the an-
cient Cheruscan league, enforced against
them the ancient rights of the Cherusci,
and, in all probability, drove the Lom-
bards back to their ancient seats on the
Elbe. For 200 years, we hear nothing
more of them, till, at the close of the fifth
centurv, they appeared again on the north
side of the Danube, and, after havinff ob-
tained a part of Pannonia fit>m the Greek
emperor Justinian II, aided by the A van,
put an end, under their king Alboin, in
566, to the empire of the GepidaB, in
Transylvania. Meeting with little resist-
ance, they conquered, two years after,
under the same king, in connexion with
20,000 emigrant Saxons, all Upper Italy
(which vras now called the kingdom of ike
LombardSj subsequently Lombard^ (see
]jombcardy\ together with a gpeat part of
Middle lud^. Their king, Lmtprand, an
able sovereign, fiY>m 713 to 726, extended
the Lombard dominion in Middle Italy.
But, having become too formidabfe'to
the popes, the latter solicited the aid of
the Frankish kings, and Charlemagne
took. the Lombard kinj^ Desiderius pris-
oner, in 774, after a six months' 'siege,
in Pavia, and destroyed the Lombard kio^-
dom. — (See Henry Leo's History of Mahf^
vol. 1 (from A. D. 5^ to 1125), m the Ge#-
ckUhte dor EuropaUchen Staaten, by Hee-
ren and Uckert (Hamburg, 1829).-r-A polit-
ical history of Italy, and of the social con-
dition of the people under the dominion
of the Lombards, by C. Troya, of Naples,
has been announced.

LoMBARDT, in the sixth century, when
the Lombards had conquered a ereat nart
of Italy, comprehended the wJhoTe of Up-
per Italy. At a later period, the Austrian
provinces in Italy (the duchies of Milan
and Mantua) have been called AvLstritm
Lombardy. These, vrith other countries,
were formed by Bonaparte into the Cisal-
pine, then into the Italian republic, and^
lastiy, in 1805, into the kingdom of Italy»
and the name of Lombardy ceased to be
used. By the peace of Parisi in 181^

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LOMBABDY— LOMENIE D£ BRIENNE.

Austria, came inlx> ponearion of much
of that jMut of Upper Italy Which had
coDitituted the kiii|;dom of Italy, and,
in 1815, it formed of its Italian provinces
a Lombardo- Venetian kingdom. In this
are comprehended the territories of the
former republic of Venice (with the excep-,
tion of Istrla, and the canton of Civida,
which are united to the new kinsdom of
lllyria), the Austrian portion of the duchy
of Milan, Mantua, a small part of Parma,
Placentia, and the papal territories, and
those formerly belon^^ng to Switzerland,
viz. the Valteline, Bormio and Chiaven-
na. It is bounded by Switzerland, Ger-
many, the Adriatic sea, the Papal States,
Modena, Parma and Sardinia, it contains
17,600 square miles, and 4,176,000 mhab-
itants, among whom are 66,500 Germans,
5600 Jews, and some Greeks. It is
watered by the Tagliamento, the Piave,
the Brenta, the Adige, the Po, Ticino,
Mincio and Adda. The principal lakes
are those of Como, the Lago Maggiore,
and the lakes of Iseo and Garda. Its ca-
nals are also numerous. The country is,
for the most part, level, but towards the
north) it is broken by spurs of the Alps,
and to the west of Padua, lie the Eugane-
an mountains, mosdy of volcanic origin,
and from 1700 to 1800 feet in height
This province is, in most parts, well culti-
vated, and resembles a garden. The cli-
mate is cool in the northern districts, near
the Alps ; but is, in the remaining parts,
warm, mild and healthy, although not free
from fi'osts in winter; and, on this ac-
count, it sometimes happens that the olive,
orange, citrons, and other tender plants, as
well as the vineyards, are injured by the
cold, and the rivers frozen. Even the
lagoons at Venice are sometimes frozen so
hfurd, that you may walk a considerable
distance, or even drive carriages, upon
them. The animals of the country are
neat catde, tolerable horses, sheep with
coarse wool, numerous birds and fish.
The silk-worm is also raised. Agriculture
is the chief dependence of the inhabitants.
The soil is fertile, and very productive in
maize, and other species of grain, legu-
minous plants, gaitien fruits, fiax, &c.
Lands that are swampy are devoted to
the cultivation of rice, of which part is
consumed in the countiy, aiMl park ex-
ported to Germany. The production of
oil and wine is also much attended to.
Besides the fniitB above-named, chesmuts,
almonds, figs, and many other finits,
^w here. A considerable trade is car-
ried on in figs, oranges and citrons. The
mineral ki ng da m jj^oducee iron, copper,

mBib]e,BB]t There are some mmeralwB*
ten. Manufactures no longer sustain the
rank which they once held : the principal
are those of glass, silk and iron. The pro-
duction and manufiusture of silk are at"
tended to throughout the country. All
kinds of silk stufiBs, ribbons, hose and
sewing-^ilk are exported. The manufiio-
ture of glass at Venice and Murano was
once important, and their mirrors much
celebrated ; and, even now, artificial
pearls, and glass work of all kinds, are ex-
ecuted in great perfection. The manufiu^
tories of steel and iron are chiefly to be
found at Brescia, where many fire-arma,
sabres, knives, &C., are made. The man*
u&cmre of woollens has much declined.
The gold and silver works at Venice and
Milan are celebrated; porcelain, pottery,
carpets, paper, many articles of luxury, as
masks, artificial flowers, pomatum, con*
fectionary, jperfumes, sausages^ candied
fruits, vernucelli, and Parmesan cheese^
are also produced. Cremona is noted for
her violins, flutes, lutes, &c. The exports
exceed the imports in value. This coun-
try is dependent upon the Austrian gOT-
emment, but, in April, 1815, the emperor
gave it a coitstitution. (See article Cm-
stittdwn, vol. iii, p. 468.) It is governed
by a viceroy, who resides at Milan, and is
divided into the governments of Lom-
bardy and Venice. The administration
of each b intrusted to a governor and a
council, dependent upon the highest au-
thorities at Vienna. The government of
Lombardy contains nearly 2,200,000 in-
habitants, on 8270 square miles of territo-
ry, and its capital is Milan. Venice is the
capital of the government of the same
name, which contains 2,000,000 inhabit-
ants, upon 9330 square miles. The sub-
divisions are called delegations. With the
authorities are connected permanent col-
leges, composed of individuals fi:x>m vari-
ous classes.

LoMENiE nE Bkieitne, Stephen Chariest
cardinal, archbishop and minister of state
in France, born at Paris, in 1727, embrac-
ed the clerical profi3SBion, in which hia
active spirit, and the powerful influence
of his coimexionfi^ enabled him to rise
repidly, although his oonnqpon with the
free-thinkerB of the age (IKAlembert, Mo-
rellet, &c.) could not have been very
agreeable to the court and the cleivy. In
1754, he published^ with Tur^t, Le Om-
ciliateuryou Lettres dSmEed^nasUque d tm
Metgisbratf which was intended to quiet
the difficulties tiien existing between the
parliament and clergy, and which was
afterwards fievend times republidied bj

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LOMENIE DE BRIENNE-LOMONOSOFF.

Dt de Nemoom, and olh-
en. In lt58, lie ifas at Rome, in the car
pachy of conckvist of cardinal de Luynea,
in the conclaTe idiich laiaed Clement
Xni to the papal throne. In 176Q, he
waa ^>poinled bishop of Condom, and,
three years after, received the archbish-
opric of Toulouse, in which situation he
obcained the praise of those who were
oppoeed to the old hierarehical and monk-
ish establisbmentB. While he attempted
to reduce the power and wealth or |he
monasteries, he was liberal in assisting
all who were in need; he caused the Gar
ronne to be united with the canal of Car-
aman, by a lateral canal, which still bears
his name; he established institutions for
education, also hoqiitals, and several
scholarBhipB at the militafy school at Tou-
louse. In 1770, he was made a member
uf the academy, and, when Beaumont,
the archbishop of Paris, died, he' would
have obtained that elevated situation, but
for his attempts at a general reform of the
monasteries, which the bigots at court
could not forgive. At the first breaking
out of the diwMmtents in France, Brienne
was among the most active. He was the*
first to raise his voice against the admin-
istration of Calonne; and, after the dis-
mission of that minister, the partisans of
Biienne induced Louis XVI to place him,
as his successor, at the head of the
finances. His brother, the coimt de Bri-
enne, was, at the same time (1787], ap-
pointed minister of war. The new nnan-
cier certainly fell short of the most mode-
rate expectations ; and, if some excuse is
£>uiid for him in the almost inextricable
conftjsion which reigned in the aftairs
of France at this period, still his warmest
defenders must allow that, for once, at
least they were deceived in him. The
conuiRon increased daily, and the minis-
ter, whose ambition had raised him to the
rank of prime minister, at this storm v pe-
riod, showed himself destitute of ability
and resources. Complaints were soon
raised agamst him on all sides, and, in
August, 1788, the king found himself
compelled to dismiss him, and to appoint
Necker in his place ; who, however, as is
well known, ^is himself unable to quell
the storm. Brienne had'previoualv been
nominated archbishop of Sens^ in place of
the cardinal De Luyne8,and, to console him
fi>r the loss of his pl^use as minister, Louis
gave him some abbeys, and obtained for
him, firam fius VI, a cardinal's hat
Bri^me also took a journey to Italy, but
without visiting Rome, and returned, in
1790, to France, to make anangementB

ibr the settlement of his debt^ whicli, not*
withstandinff his immense income, were
•o considerwle as to compel him to dis-
pose of a portkxi of his valuable librar}*.
The cardtnol dk Lomime^ as he was now
called, took the oath prescribed to thie
c^gy by the constitution, and, in Marrh,
1791, he asked his dismisaion fix>m the
college of cardinals— « fitvor which Pius
willingly granted. Brienne had hoped,
by this step, to save himself fitim the Jier-
secutions of the revolutionary party; but
he was arrested at Sens, in November,
1793, was releaeed, and, subsequent!},
acain arrested, and, upon the morning of
Feb. 16, 1794, was fi>und dead in his pris-
on. The ill treatment and abuse which
he had suffered fix>m his brutal guards,
together with an indifreetion, had lnt>ught
on an apoplexy, of which he died, in the
67th year of his ase. — His brother, the
minister of war, Athanasius Louis Marie
de Lom^nie, count de Brienne, — ^whose
successor in the ministry vras De la Tour
du Pin, — ^fell, the same year, beneath the
axe of the executioner. There is an Ortd-
sonJwUbre du Daupkm (Paris, 1766), by
the cardinal de Brienne.

LoMOROsoFF, Michael Wasilowitz ; the
creator of the modem poetical language
of his country, and the fiither of Russian
literature ; bom in 171 1, near Cholmogory,
in the government of Archangel, in the
village of Denissowritaia, where a monu-
ment was erected to his memory, in 1625,
through the infiuence of NeophytHB,
bishop of Archanflel. His father was a
fisherman, whom ne assisted in his labors
for the support of the famtly. In winter
a dcigyman taught him to read. A poet-
ical spirit and a love of knowledge were
awakened in the boy by the sinking of the
psalms at church, and the readmg of the
Bible. Without having received any in-
stmction, he conceived the plan of cele-
brating die wonders of creation and the
great deeds of Peter I, in songs similar to
Uiose of David. But, hearing that there
was a school at Moscow, in which schol-
ars were instmcted in Greek, Latin, Ger-
man and French, he secretly left his
father's bouse, and went to the capital to
seek that mstmction which his inquisitive
spirit demanded. He was then sent to
Aaev, and, in 1734, to the newly estab-
lished academy of literature at St Peters-
burg, where he studied natural science
and mathematics. Two years later, he
went to Germany, studied mathematics
under Christian Wolf, in Maihurg, read
the German poets, and studied the art of
mining, at Freybeig. On his jouinqr to

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LOMONOSOFF— LONDON.

Brunswick, be was sdzed by Prunan
recniitineofficenyaDd obliged to enter tbe
service ; but, having made his escape, he
returned, by the way of Holland, to St.
Petersburj^ (^741), where lie received a
situoUon m the academy, and was made
director of the mineraloffical cabinet.
Soon after, he published his nrst celebrated
ode (on tbe Turkish war and the victorv
of Pultawa). The empress Elizabeth
made him professor of chemistry (1745),
and, in 1752, he received the phvilese of
establishing a manufactory fijt colored

C* 8 beads, &c. As he had been the
to encourage an attempt at mosaic
work in Rusaa, the government confided
to him the direction of two large pictures
in mosaic, intended to commemorate the
deeds of Peter I. In 1760, the gymnasiums
and the university were put under his
inspection; and, in 1764, he was made
counsellor of state. He died April 4,
1765. Catharine II caused his remains to
be deposited with great pomp in the mo-
nastic church of saint Alexander NewskL
Besides odes and other lyric pieces, he
wrote Petreide^ a heroic poem on Peter I,
In two cantos, which is the best work of^
the kind that Russia has yet produced.
Lomonosoff also wrote a Russian grammar,
and several works on mineralogy, metal-
lurgy and chemistiy. His Grammar, and
his Sketch of Russian History, have been
translated intd German and French. The
Russian academy published his works in
6 vols., 4to. (2d edit, 1604, 3 vols.). Ad-
miral Tschitschagoffhas written a Life of
Lomonosoff (See Bowring's i^tunon j^ti-

LoMus, in Indian mythology ; the first
beinff created by Brama, which, to give
itself up entirely to the contemplation of
divine things, buried itself in the earth,
and whose ufe will last longer even than
that of Brama. In order to indicate the
enormous duration of the life of Lomus,
the Indians say, that Lomus has a body
more than 90 miles long, covered with
hair. Each time that a Brama dies, who
lives 960 days, each day being equal to
4320 human years, Lomus pulls out a
single hair fiom hi^ body ; and when, at
last, all the hairs are gone, and even Vish-
nu and Mahadeva have ceased to live, then
the whole universe is dissolved, and all
returns to chaos, so that nothing remains
but the eternal, original being ; because
with the last hair Lomus also <&es.

Loir, or hvs ; a Gothic word, sijniifying
loood liontUm has been derived from it.

LoHDOir, the metropolis of the British
empiie, ataiidain laL 5Pdr N., and k>n.

5f 2fff' W. fiom the obsenratoiy at Green-
wich. It is situated about 00 miles west
fiom the sea, on the banks of the Thames,
the mean width of which, at London, is
about a quarter of a mile, and its average
depth about 12 feet The northern bank
slopes gendy upward, and its soil is chief-
ly eravel and clay, with a mixture of loam
and sand. On the southern side, the sur-
face is almost uniformly flat. The build-
ings on the northero, or Middlesex shore,
follow the natural bend of the river, and
rise somewhat amphitheatricaUy, from east
to west, stretching northward, on an aver-
age length, to three miles fix>m the river ;
and those on the southern or Surrey side,
forming the chord of the semicircle, pene-
trate southward to an extent varying from
one to three miles. The length of this
vast aggregate, firom east to west, i. e.
from Hyde Park Comer to Mile Eiid or
Poplar, may be taken at seven miles and a
half. Its circumference may be estimated
at 30 miles ; and its area, extending over
11,520 square acres, of which the river
occupies 1120, is about 20 miles. Fashion
and convenience have united to furnish
various modes of designating the sevenii
parts of this colossal mass. Thus the
ideal line, which is progressively mov-
iDg more and more westerly, sepa-
rates the world of fashion, or the West
End, from the world of business. The
city, so called, includes the most ancient
and central divimon of the metropolis.
It is rapidly being depopulated; as the
chief traders and merchants occupy mere-
ly counting-houses and warehouses in the
city, and, m proportion as wealth accu-
mulates, flow towards tbe western regions
of fashion. In the East End are ^und
the docks and warehouses connected with
ship-building and commerce, and every
collateral branch of naval traffic South-
wark, or the Borough, on the southern
bank of the Thames, the trans TS>enm of
London, abounds with huge manu&cto-
ries, breweries, iron-founderies, class-
houses, &c. It is the abode chiefly of
workmen, laborers, and the lower classes
of society, but interspersed with some
considerable buildings, hospitals, prisons,
and charitable foundations The city of
Westminster, including the houses of lords
and commons, the law courts, royal pal-
aces, and many government ofllces, may
be defflffnated as the Court End of Lon-
don. The remaining; portion can haidlT
be clasBified, or specifically denominated.
It is a nondescript accumulation of
streets, crescentt, polygons, terraces and
squares^ occupying the nortbem poitioQa

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LONDON.

of the nMtropoBi^ akng the fine of the
new road. On llie nearest computation,
at the jpraent day (1830), London con-
nana 80 aquaree and about 9000 8treett^
lanea|,iowB,aOey8,courti,&c.; the bouaea
in which are said to amount to 170,000.
The pariiamenta^ oennia of 1821, the
bteat authentic document to which we
can refer, foixuahee the following particu-
1am of ita poputation :

London within the walk, 56,174

London without the walk, . . . 69^
Weatminster and its fibertiefl^ . 182,065

Soutbwaik, 85,905

Finabuiy Division, exclusive of
Friam, Bamet, Finchley,
Honieey and Stoke-New-

ington, 110,137

Holbom Division, 276,630

Parish of Bermondsey, 25^235

Parish of Lambeth, 57,638

Parish of Nevrincton Butts, . . 33,047

Pteish of Rotbertiitbe, 12,523

Tower Division, 291,650

Total, 1,200,274

An the streets of London are paved with
great reffularity. The carriage-road is
either laid with cubes of granite, accurate-
ly jointed and embedded in clay, or else
Maea^tmaed. Macadamizing is greatly
in vogue in the squares and wider outlets
of the West End, but it seems to have
fidled in the narrower and more cart-
trodden streets of the city. The number,
variety and magnificence of the squares
in London deserve a cursory notice. The
largest square in London is Lincoln's Inn
Fields^ its area being computed equal to
770 feet square ; but, the tide of fashion
having long set westward, this sauare is
chiefly occupied by members of the legal
profenon. The college of surgeons
ferms a prominent object on the southern
side, and the eastern is adorned (with the
intervention of a garden) by the range
called atone bmldingSj part of Lincok's
Inn. Russell square is nearly equilateral,
eadi side being about 670 feet long. The
houses are spacious. It communicates
with Bloomsbury square by a street, at the
northern extremity of which is a colossal
bnmze statue of the late duke of Bedford,
by Westmacott, opposite to which, at the
aouthem end, is a similar statue of Charles
James Fox, by the same artist Belgrave
square, begun on the estate of earl Orosve-
nor, at Pimlico, in 1825, is one of the
most splendid in architectural decoration.
The squares chiefly distinguished by rea-
denoesof the nobihty are Beridey, Caven-

diab, Chtwvenor, Hanover, St. Jamais
Manchester and Portman squares. With*
in the fast seven yeaifl^ the use of coal gas^
inatead of oil, in Kghtinff tiie streets and
public edificea of London, has become
almost universaL The consumption of
coak^ by three of the gas companies,
amounts to 32,700 chaldrons per annum,
and their len^ of main pipe extenda
nearly 200 nules, communicatinjif with
more than 40,000 lamps. There is not a
street, lane or alley, in thk vast metropo-
lilE^ which is not perforated, so to speiaJc,
virith arched excavations. Every house
communicates, by one or more draina,
with the main sewers, which again emptv
themselves into laroer tunnels, and uJU-
mately into the Thames, London is
plentifullT, though not very purely, sup-
pled with water. The New River com-
.fUny was incorporated under James I,, in
1619. Mr. Hugh Middleton, a goldsmith
and citizen of I^ndon, after many obsoruo-
tions, succeeded in conveving a stream
from a spring at Chadwell, near Ware,
20 miles from London, by a devious
coune of 40 miles in kngth, terminating
in two capacious basins, which cover five
acres, and average 10 feet in depth. These
reservoirs are 85 feet above low-water
mark ; but, by means of siphons and steam-
engines, water can be raised 60 feet above
that level It k chiefly conveyed by
main and branch pipes of cast metaJ,
which communicate 'With the houses by
leaden pipes of an inch diameter. The to-
tal supply to 177,100 houses, k 28,774,000
SJlons per day. M. Dupin observes, that
e water distributed by one of these com-
panies (the New River company) costs
Uie consumer about 2d, for eveiy 6300
pints ; and that the system of pipes, for
water and gas lighting joindy, stretches
out in a line exceeding 400 leagues in
extent, beneath the pavement of London.
Fuel k sufiicientiy anundant, but extrava-
gantly dear, in London. Coals can be
brought to the mouth of the river Thames
for comparatively moderate cost But by
certain local reipilations, there are enor-
mous duties levied on all coals coining to
the port of London ; and duties, amount-
ing i^ost to contraband, on coak con-
veyed by inland navigation or otherwise
The average price of coak in London,
veinterand stftnmer, is, to the consumer,
about 409. per chaldron of 281 cwt.
About 2,000,000 chaldrons per annum are
consumed in Middlesex and Surrey, and,
considering the vast supplies required for
the steam-engines and manufiicturee of
Lond<»i, perhape neariy two think of that

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LONDON.

qoanti^ are denied to the metropolb
alone. The code brought to the Loodon
maiket are chiefly fiom Newcaatle, in
Noithumberiand,'in coasting veaeele, to
the number of 4500. The average con-
sumption of the principal articles of food,
in London, baa been calculated as below :

Oxen, . . . 160,000 -\ a««„.iw««w
Shee^ . . 1,500000 (^rft"*^Sida
CakS, . . . 21 000 ( ^^^f^^^^
HogT. .. 20;000) "M^ketonly.
Milk, . . 8,000,000 gallons.
Butter,. . . . 11,000 tons.
Cheese, . . . 13,000 "
Wheat, . 1,000,000 quarters, of
which four fifths, made into bread,
form . 15,000,000 quartern loaves.

By a return from the com exchange, it
appears that the quantity of British and
foreign com and flour in bond, on the Is^
June, 1630, was as follows:

Wheat, 295,107 quarters.

Oats, 430,332 «

Flour, 173,059 cwts.

Foreign ditto:

Wheat, 21,129 quarters.

Oats, 13,343 «

The value of poultry, annually consumed^
amounts to neaiiy £80,000, exclusive of
^ime, the supply of which is variable.
The principal market for live catde is
at Smithfield, held every Monday and
Thursday. The markets for country-
killed cattle, pigs and poultry, are Lead-
enhall (where skins and leather, also, are
exclusively sold) ; Newgate, on Mondays,
Wednesdays and Fridays ; and Fleet
(now Farringdon) market, rebuilt on a
large scale, and opened in 1829. The
supply of fruit ana ve^tables is equally
abundant The chief^ mart is Covent
carden, where ranges of handsome shops
have lately been erected on the estate of
the duke of Bedford. There are at least
2000 acres, in the immediate vicinitv of
London, continually under spade-culdva-
tion as kitchen-gardens ; which, by judi-
cious management, yield an interminable
succession of valuable esculents. It has
been calculated, that the cost of fruit and
vegetables consumed annually in London,
exceeds £1,000,000 steriing. The^it-
gardens, exclusive of thoee belonging to
private yesidences, are compBted to occu-
py about 3000 acres, chiefly on the banks
of the Thames in Sumy and Middlesex.
Few cities are more abundantly supplied
with fish of every description and ouality.
Turbot ahd brill of the flnest ouahly are
procured from the coast of Holland; sal-

moa in profusion from the great riven of
Scotland and Ireland, and, occasionally,
from the Thaines ; mackerel, ' codfish,
lobsters and oystecES from the river mouth.
A calculation makes the supply of fish at
Billingsgate, in the year 1828, as follows :

Fresh salmon, .... 45,446

Plaice, skate, &c., . 50,754 bushels.

Turbot, 87,958

Cod (fresh), 447,130

Herrings, 3,336,407

Haddocks, 483,493

Mackerel, .... 3,076,700
Lobsters, 1,954,600

And the number of fishing-vessels en-
gaged in furnishing this supply, was
registered, in the same year, at 3827.
The consumption of ale and porter may
be estimated from the foltowing facts:
^It appears by the annual statement of the
London brewers, for die year ending July
5, 1830, tliat the quantity of porter brewed
by the ten principal houses, amounted,
to 1,077,285 barrels. The ale annually
brewed, by the six princii)al ale-brewers,
amounts to about 80,000 barrels. Still
the consumption of malt liquor has de-
creased within the last three years ; for, in
1827, the quantity returned, by the ten
principal brewers, was 1,129,7^2 barrels.
The decrease is owin^, perhaps, partly to
the deteriorated quali^''; for it appears,
that, while the quantity actually brewed
throughout England amounted, during the
last ten years, to 6,170,000 barrels, tiie
actual quantity of malt used decreased
annually in a remarkable degree. But,
besides this, the comparative cheapness,
and more rapid excitation produced by
ardent spirits, especially that deleterious
compound callea English gin, have in-
duced the most destructive habits of in-
temperance among the lower classes. It
is stated that there are about 11,000 public
houses, i. e. houses for the sale of beer
and 8()irituous liquors, in London alone,
averaging a profit of 20 to 30 per cent
upon the property vested in them. The
total consumption of gin, in London, has
risen, during the last two yeai-s, front
12,000,000 to 24,000,000 gallons! The
temperature of the atmosphere in London
is considerablv above that of the mean
temperature of Middlesex, or the adjoining
counties. It is geDerally humid, liable to
sudden variations, and, occasionally, to
fo^ of extraordinary density during the
winter months. The mean tempemture
is 51^ 9^ Fahrenheit The extreme range
of the thennometer may be taken in Jan-
uaiy, 1795, when it rank to 38° bek)w

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LONDON.

zero, and in July, 1808, when it rose to
94^ in the shade. The barometer aver-
figes 29^ inches. A considerable part of
the metropolis, viz. the city of Westmin-
ster and the borough of Southwarfc, is
below the level of the highest water-marfc.
The soil, in general sound and dry, the
sewers and draios, which convey awav all
impurities, the broad tide-current of the
Thames, the wholesome and abundant
supply of provisions, and the precautions
for cleanliness, combine to render London,
perhaps, the healthiest metropolis in the
world. The average duration of human
life has increased with the improvements
in domestic economy, insomuch that the
fates of premiums on iife-iusurances have
universally been lowered. The diseases
of London are in nowise peculiar to it as
a city. Those of a cutaneous nature are
comparativelv nire. Many result from
die nature oi the employment, in manu-
&ctures of various kmds ; others are the
of&pring of intemperance. The annual
mortality in London, which, in the year
1700, was as 1 in 25, may now be taken
at 1 in 40 persons. The number of
registered births amounted, in the year
endhig Dec. 15, 1839, to, males 13,764 ;
females, ]dy354 ; total, 27,1 18. The num-
ber of registered burials, in the same year,
was, males, 12,015; females, 11,509; to-
tal, 23,524. The table of baptisms does
not include the children of Dissenters
from the establishment It was stated, in
a meeting lately held for the purpose of
forming a grand national cemetry, in Lon-
don, tlmt the annual interments amounted
to about 40^000. — Ciml gwemment. The
chief civic officer of London is the lord
mayor, annually elected from among the
aldermen on the 2^h September. The
powers and privileges of this officer are
very extensive. The court of aldermen
consists of 26 members. They are chosen
for life by the householders of the 26
wards into which the city is divided, each
being the representiciveof a several ward.
They are properly tli-} subordinate gov-
ernors of their respective wards, under the
jurisdiction of the lord mayor, and preside
in the courts of Wardmote for the redress
of minor grievances, removing nuisances,
&C., assisted by one or more deputies,
nominated by them from the coAimon
council of the respective wards. Such as
have filled the office of lord mayor, be-
come justices of the quorum, and all
ocfaeiB are justices of die peace within the
city. The sheriffi, two in number, are
annually chosen by the livery, or general
aasembly of the fieemen of I^ndon.
YQim vin. 6

When once elected, they are eompeOed
to serve, under a penahy of £400. The
common council is a court consistiiig of
240 representatives, returned by 25 of the
wards, in proportion to their relative ex-
tent; tiie 26th, or Bridgt Ward mthaut^
being represented by an alderman. The
flenml business of this court is to legis-
late for the internal government of the
city, its police, revenues, &c. It is Con-
vened only on sununons from the^ord
mayor, who is an integral member of the
court, as are the aldermen also. The
decisions are, as in other assemblies, de-
pendent on a majority of voices. The
recorder is ^nerally a barrister of emi-
nence, appomted, for life, by the lonl
mayor and aldermen, as principal assist-
ant and adviser to the civic magistracy,
and one of the iustices of Oyer and Ter-
miner, for which services he is remune-
rated with a salaiy of £2000 per annum
from the city revenues. The subordinate
officers are the chamberiain, town clerk,
common sergeant, city remembrancer,
swonl bearer, &c. The livery of London
is the aggregate of the members of tho
several city companies, of which there are
91, embracing the various trades of the
metropolis. They constitute the elective
body, in whom resides the election, not
only of all the civil officers, but also of the
four members who represent the city in
parliament The local jurisdiction of
Westminster is partiy vested in civil, partly
in ecclesia^cal officers. The high stew-
ard has an under-steward, who officiates
for him. Next in dignity and office are
the high bailiff and the deputy bailifi^
whose autborit^r resembles that of a sheriff^
in summoning juries and acting as return-
ing officers at tlie election of members of
parliament, of whom the city of West-
minster returns two. These officere are
chosen by the dean and chapter of West-
minster, and appointed for life. The
borough of Southwark is one of the city
wards, and denominated Bridge Ward
Without. It is subject to the jurisdiction
of the lord mayor. It returns two mem-
bera to parliament The military force
supplied by London comprises two regi-
ments of militia, amounting to 2200 men,
whom the city is authorized to raise by
ballot; the officere being appointed by the
commissionere of the king's lieutenancy
for the city of London, according to a
parliamentary act in 1794. The year
1829 wimessed the almost entire remoidel-
ing of the ancient system of police and
nightiy watch. These latter guardians
of the public were heretofore appointed

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LONDON.

by the wvcral vnadB in the city diicriety
and by the puoehid authorities in other
parts of the metropolis. But a recent act
of DariiamentestalMiBhed a body of metro-
politan poiicey diviaioned and d]8cii>lined
somewhat like the gens fParmarie of
France, and subjectea to the control of a
board, consisting of three commisBioneis,
who superintend and are responsible for
all acts of their inferiors. The metropolis
beinf subdivide into sections, each has a
station or watch-house, and a company
<^ poUce, consisting of 1 superintendent,
4 inspectc»B, 16 sergeants, and 144 police
constables. They are dressed in a blue
semi-military unifi>rm, and are on duty at
all hours, night and day. This new police
commenced its duties, in several of the
parishes of Westminster, on Sept 29, 1829,
and is becoming gradually extended to
the other districts. The present number
employed is estimated at 5000 men. But
the city retains its special establishments,
under the control of its own magistracy.
It comprises morshalmen, day and night
patrols, constables, watchmen and street-
keepers, altogether amounting to 800 or
900 men, appointed by the several wards.
The principal city police offices are at the
Mansion house and Guildhall, where
aldermen preside in rotation. In the dis-
tricts not virithin the ci^ jurisdiction, there
are eight different omces, presided over
by. 27 magistrates, usually selected from
among the banisters. There are also 100
foot-patrols, and, in winter, 54 horse-
patrols, the fi>rmer continually, the latter
onl^ by niffht, protecting the streets and
environs of the metropoOs. Independent
of these is the Thames pohce, established
in 1796, for the protection of persons and
property connected with the shipping,
from Vauxhall bridge to Woolwich. The
chief office is at Wapping, and the impor-
tance of such an estabhshment may be
estimated, ly considering that there are
upwards of 13,000 vessels of various ozes
engi^§;ed on this river, annually dischanr-
ing and receiving more than SfiOOflSO
packaffes of goods of every description*
The chief prison for criminals is' Newgate
in the Old Bailey. It is the common gaol
for London and Middlesex. The number
of its inmates varies from 900 to 350. The
Coinpter is situated in Giltspur street, close
to Newgate, and destined for the recep-
tion of vagrants and persons committed
previous to examination, or as a house of
correction for the confinement of persons
sentenced to hard labor or imprisoimient
Clerkenwell prison, in Spafields^ receives
prisQDem of every description, fi>r the

county of Middlesesc* Its trerupe num-
ber of inmates is about 200. 'Ae Fleet
prison, in what was lately Fleet market, is '
a receptacle for debton and persons guilty
of what is technically called contend of
the court of chancery. It is intended to
remove this nuisance, and to build a sub-
stitute in St George's fields, in the Bor-
ough. The prison usuaUy contains 250
indwellers, and keeps ward of about GO
out-patients, i. e. prisonera privileged to
live vnthin the rules. The King's Bench
prison is a spacious gaol for debtors and
minor criminals. It has about 200 sepa-
rate apartments. The other prisons of
note are in South wark, viz. Horsemonger
lane or the Surrey county gaol, appro-
priated to felons and debton; the Bor-
ough Compter, for various classes of
ofiendera ; the New Bridewell, erected in
1829, near Bethlehem hospital, as a house
of correction. In which the prisonera are
chiefiy employed at the tread-mill; and
the Marahalsea prison, in Blackraan street,
for persons committed by the Marahalsea
court. The principal houses of correc-
tion are the Bridewell hospital. Cold Bath
fields, and the penitentiary at Milbank.
The ecclesiastical division of London
comprises 97 parishes within the v^ls,
17 without, 10 in Westminster, besides
29 out-parishes in Middlesex and Surrey.
It contains one cathedral (St. Paul's], one
collegiate church (Westminster abbey]^
130 parish * churches, and 70 Episcopal
chapels; nearW 200 places of worship
beloneing to Protestant Dissentera ; 18
churches or chapels of foreign Protestants,
viz. 1 Armenian,' 1 Danish, 2 Dutch, 5
French, 7 German, 1 Swiss, and 1 Swe-
dish ; 6 meeting-bouses of the Friends (or
Quakere) ; 10 British Roman Catholic
chapels ; 5 ditto for foraignera of that per-
suasion, viz. 1 Bavarian, 1 French, 1
German, 1 Sardinian, 1 Spanish ; and 6
Jewish synagogues, one of which is for
Portuguese, and another for German Jews.
(Westminster abbey and St Paul's cathe-
dral are described in separate articles.)
London owes not merely its magnificent
cathedral, but 53 other churches, to sir
Christopher Wren. The multiplication
of churches has nearly kept pace vrith the
rapid extension of the metropolis. The
commissioners, appointed for the purpose*
are gradually removinff the stigma upon
an opulent church establishment, that re-
ligious accommodation was unprovided
for the poor* Many of the churches pos-
sess much architectural beauty. There
are, in London, 45 fi^ee schools, endowed
in perpetuity, for educating and maintain-

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LONDON:

i«ff BMrijr 4000 ehOdno, 17 ftr pauper er
donned cbildrBti, and about 940 pariah
aehooJai in which dothiDc and education
are audited to about 12,000 children.
The chief public endowmeutSy of the fint
deaeription, are, St. Paul's school, Christ's
boepitel, Weatminster school, Merchant
Tauon* school, and the Cbaiter house,
Sc Paul's school, founded in 1509, be-
fllDWB a dassical education upon 153 pu-
pils. Chriat'& hoepittd, founded by Ed-
ward VI, in 1547, can accommodate about
1100 children, of both sexes, who are
docfaed, boarded and educated for seven
yean. Some of the boys are prepared
fiNT the univereity, most of them for
commerce. Westminster school, founded
IB 1560 bv queen Elizabeth, receives a
large numoer of pupils of high rank and
reapectahility. Merchant Tailors' school,
founded by the companv of merchant
tailors in 1561, educates about 300 pupils
at a very low rate of payment. The com-
pany nominate to 46 fellowships in St.
John% college, Oxford. The Charter
houae, endowed in 1611, suppoits and
educatea scholars for the university (where
they receive a liberal annuiw), or for com-
merce, besides i^istructin^ about 150 other
pupils. Many other charitable insdtutions
for education are supported by volunta^
contribution, as are, also, the parochial
schools, which usually provide clothing
and elementary instruction for the poor
children of the respective parishes. The
children of these schools are annually
asKmbled in the vest area of St Paul's,
on the first Thursday in June. The cen-
nal national school, with its 40 subsidiary
schools in London, educates there about
20,000 children. The British and for-
eign school society, at its central and sub-
sidiary schools, of which there are, in
London, 43, educates about 12,000 chil-
dren. The Sunday schools, taught by
about 5000 ffrotuitous teachers, instruct
between 60,000 and 70,000 children. The
foundling hospital is capable of receiving
about 2w children. There are also or-
phan asylums, an asylum for the deaf and
dumb, one for the indigent blind, and
many others. Akns-houses are numer-
oua There is a small debt relief society,
a mendicity societv,a philanthropic socie-
ty for giving employment to the industri-
ous poor, a prison discipline society, &^
There are alao various hospitals; St.
HioinasX with 490 beds; St. Bartholo-
mewX capable of accommodating be-
tween 400 and 500 patients ; Guy's hospi-
tal, with 400 beds; St. George's, with 350;
MiddWapy hoiiMiia,able to contain 300 pft-

i; tfia Lo&doD boniid; ■naU'PQaiboa*
phal ; various lying-in tjoaprtah, &c The
Bethkfaem hospital and St. Luke^ hoaphal
receive inaane patientai The humane
society baa 18 receiving-houses in difier-
ent perls of London^ vrith apparatua for
restoring suspended animation. Dispen^
series relieve more than 50,000 pauents
annually. There are at least 30 of them,
besides 12 for the sole purpose of vaccina-
tion. The college of physicians and the
college of surgeons exanune candidatea for
the professions of physic and surgery, in
the metropolis and the suburbs. ' The
museum of the latter body contains the
collections of the celebrated John Hunter,
amounting to 20,000 specimens and ana-
tomical prepantions. The apothecariea'
company grant certificatea, vritnout which
no one can practiBe as an apothecary in
England or Wales. The number of
boc^sellers and publiaheiv is more than
300. The number of newspapers is 55.
(See AVtMpoper^.) The Britisn museum
(q. V.) is a spacious brick structure, in the
French style of architecture. It waa,
originally, the palace of the first duke of
Montague, built in 1677; its dimensions,
216ft length by 70ft. depth,and57 ft heiffht
The ground floor is appropriated solely
to the reception of the ubraiy of printed
books. The principal or unper floor con-
tains the miscellaneous articles of curiosity
for public inspection ; such as collections
of minerals, lavas, volcanic productions^
shells, fossils and zoological s])ecimens,
British and foreian, and uao various arti-
cles from the south sea Islands, and
North and Western America, &c. The
ground floor is connected with a more
modem building, called the gaUety of an-
timdtiesy divided into 15 apartments, in
wnich are distributed nearly 1000 pieces
of sculpture, Greek and Roman, a fine
collection of terra cottas, Roman sepul-
chral urns, e^ffpiy iorcophagij &c. In a
temporary room are deposited the Elgin
marbles, purchased by government for
£35,000. The upper floor of this saUery
contains the collections of Herculanean
and Pompeian antiquities made by sir
William Hamilton, cabinets of coins and
medals, and also a rare collection of prints
and engravings by the most eminent
artists. The present building is destined
to be razed to the ground as soon as a
splendid edifice, now constructing, is com-
pleted. There are various other public
libraries. King's college (q. v.J waa
founded in 1828. The London univer8itq^^
founded in 1825, is not a chartered insOr
tutioQ. It» couiae of mstnictioa compn-

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«M

LONDON.

hends languages^ mathematicB, phyncs,
ethics, law, hi^xy, political economy and
medical sdenoe, communicated in public
lectuxes, examinations by the proiesson,
&c. The building is yet incomplete, the
r^ntral part alone being finished, which
extends 400 feet in length, and 200 in
depth. The fix>nt, to Gower street, is a
handsome fa^bde, adorned with the no-
blest poFdco in London, of 12 Corintliian
columns, ascended by a flight of steps,
surmounted by a dome and lanteru. On
the principal floor is a spacious examina-
tion nail, a museum of natural history, a
museum of anatomy, professors'* apiut-
ments, a grand library, 120 feet by 50, and
a smaller library, 41 feet by 22; and at
each end is a semicircular theatre for lec-
tures, 65 feet by 50. The ground floor is
portioned into lecture-rooms, cloisters,
two theatres, chemical laboratory, muse-
um, offices and counoil-room. The num-
bcnr of students, in this university, in the
year 1829, was 680. The royal society
of literature was instituted in 1823 ; the
royal society for improving natural knowl-
edge, in 1663 ; the society of antiquaries,
in 1572; the royal institution, in 1800,
for difllising mechanical knowledge, and
the application of science to the various
purposes of life ; the society of arts, in
1574, to award premiums and bounties to
useful inventions and discoveries; the
royal academy, in 1768, for the promo-
tion of the fine. arts. It provides students
with busts, stames, pictures and living
models, and has professors of painting,
architecture, anatomy, perspective and
sculpture. Their annual exhibition of
new paintings, drawings, sketches, sculp-
tures, &C., the admission to which is one
shilling per head, averages £6000 per an-
num, and supports all the expenses of the
establishment There are several other
societies for the promotion of the fine arts,
and the private collections of works of art
are numerous and splendid. The number
of theatres and amphitheatres is 12, of
which the principal are, the Kuig's theatre
or Italian opera-house, Drury lane and
Oovent garden theatres. Vauxhall gar-
dens are a fiivorite place of summer resort
for the lovers of music, singing and fire-
woricB. The nrincipd promenades are
St James's paA, Green pai^ Hvde park
(q. v.), (whicn comprises nearly wO acres)
Kensinffton gardens, and the Regent's
paik, which is laid out in shrubberies and
rich plantations, adorned bv a fine piece
of water, studded with villas and inter-
sected by rides and promenades. The
Zoiilogical gardenn^ in this porii, oootain

many dMTerent soitB of animals, in pod--
doclm, dens or aviaries. The commerce
of London was so extended, even in the
fourth century, that 800 vessels were em-
ployed in its port, for the exportation of
com only. In the seventh century, it is
characterized by Bede as the emporium
of traffic to many nations; and, in the
twelfth century, it appears that the prod-
ucts of Arabia and the East were mrge\y
imported. In the thirteenth century, the
com[)any of merchant adventurers was
incorporated by Edward I ; in the six-
teenth, the Russia company received its
charter from Mary, which was confirmed
by her successor, Elizabeth; and the Le-
vant or Turkey company was established.
The increase of commerce in this century
led, also, to the erection of the royal ex-
change, by sir Thomas Gresham. The
beginning of the seventeenth century wit-
nessed the first patent granted to the East
India company, the incorporation of the
company of Spanish merchants, and the
establishment of assurance and insurance
companies. (See Companies, and Com-
merce of the WoridL) The number of ves-
sels belonging to the port of London, in
1701, was §S0 ships, containing 84,882 tons ;
in 1829, 2663 ships, containing 572,835
tons. The value of the imports and ex-
ports of London, in 1806, was £36,527,000 ;
in 1829, £107,772,805. The customs of
London amounted, in 1710, to £1,268,095 ;
in the year ending July 5, 1829, to
£15,597,482; ditto, 1830, to £16,385,049.
The number of vessels employed in the
coasting trade, was, hi 179fe, 11,176; in
1827, 17,677. The number of vessels
employed in the foreign trade, in 1827,
was, British, 4012; foreign, 1534; total,
5546 ; in which it is calculated, that one
fflxth of the tonnage and one fourth of the
men were employed in the East India
trade, and one sixth of the tonnage and
one third of the men in the West India
trade. The vessels employed in the river
navigation, in 1827, were 3000 barges,
350 puntB, and 3000 wherries, the total
tonnage of which was 110,000 tons, em-
ploying 8000 men. There are 50 steam-
vessels, of different descripdons, belonging
to tlie port of London, and the year l^D
is remarkable for the successful voyage of
the first steam-packet fit>m liidia. The
custom-house, in Lower Thames street, is
a spacious building. The principal fiont
to tne river presents a facade of 480 fbet
in length ; tne depth is 100 feet ; and the
prindpil or Long room is 180 feet by d(K
The building affords aceommodatioa to
650 cleika and officers, besMleB 1000 land-

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LONDON. m

jfag nuten and ierfintB; The dodcB of nicatioii, as in KnaiwMi Hie gCMnl

London are on a scale of giandeur com* post-ofBce, in Lon£>n, ia a magnificent

menaurate with the extent of its com- building. The intsreaae of leyenue, from

merce. (See Dodts,) St Catharine'^ this department, will be apparent from the

docira were commenced in 1827, with a following comparatiTe statement:

^SS^X^l^'^X'^ InJgJU«no»nted.o£ggOper^«uu

conunmilcate with the river by a canal f™' iiflnm «

190 feet long and 45 broad, and cover a f i°J ^nnn u

sorfaee of §4 acres, originally occupied ^^^^ lf»7,UW

by 1250 houses, situate between London It is stated, that the average number of

docks and Tower hill, including St letters which pass through me poat-offiee

Catharine^ church and hos{ntaL They exceeds half a million weekly : 90,000

are cakulated to accommodate 1400 mer- letters were put into the post-office on

f^bant vessels, annually, in the wet docks the 26th of June, 1880, the day of kinr

and baan, the former coyering 11 acres. Georae VPb death. The chief offices of

The cost of completing these great works the East India company are comprised

was £2,000,000 sterling. In noticing the within the prednds of the East India

manufoctures and tnule of London, we bouse, in Leadenball street— « spadoua

riiall merely observe, that as early as the edifice, ornamented by an Ionic portico

fomteenth century, it was celebrated for of six columns, and presentinff a stale^

its excellent cloths and furs, the skinners ly front of 200 feet length. InsuranesB

and cloth'Workers forming a numerous on ships are chiefly emcted by under*

and wealthy class of citizens. In the writers, whose principal place of resort

sbneenthcentui^, themanufoctureof fine is Lloyd's cofilee-house, on the north

glass, silk stockings, knives, pins, needles, side of the royal exchange. Insurancea

podcet-watches and coaches, was exten- on lives, and against loss of propeity

sively established. In the seventeenth, it by fire, are efi»cted by 37 insurance

was noted for the manufacture of salt- companies. (For the bridges^ see Bridge).

petre; and the silk manufactures, on an The Thames tunnel was commenced

extensive scale, commenced under the in- in 1825, and was intended to form a

dusbious French refiigees, great numberB communication, under the bed of the

of whom settled in Spitalnelds, after the river, between Rothertiithe and Wap*

revocation of the edict of Nantes. The pinff. It was to consist of two parallet

printing of calicoes was also commenced, archways, each 1300 foet Ions and 14 foet

and weaving-looms were introduced from wide, having the partition yml pierced by

Holland. From that time to the present, the a series of arehea nassages, to allow ac^

productions of London have increased ^vith cess fix>m one road to 3ie other. The

extFaordinary rapidity, and include every crown of the tunnel is 15 feet below the

artiele of elegance and utility. No city can bed of the river, and the approaches are

boast more splendid shops, or inereater formed by spiral descents of easy declivity^

nun^ber, tlian London ; these, with the vast The progress of the work is suspended at

warehouses in the city, where the whole- present; but the portion of it complete

sale trade is chiefly carried on, excite the extends above 600 feet in length, and '»

astonishment of foreigners. Previously to accessible to visitors. If ever it be finish-

the year 1694, the pecuniaiy transactions ed, it virill form one of the most extraordi-

of London were chiefly carried on by the nary substructions of ancient or modem

aid of the wealthy goldsmiths, who were times. The projector was Mr. Brunei, a

the jnincipal bankers during the disturb- skilful and enterprising en^een The

ances of the civil wars. In 1694, the Monument, on Fish street hill, is a lofly

bankof£nglaridv<ras incorporated, under column of the Doric order, erected to>

the tide of the gtmemor and cmnpanv of (he comroemorste the dreadful ^le of London,,

Uoik of En^Umdy in consideration of a loan in 1666. Sir Christopher Wren fomished

of £1^200^00 advanced to government, the design. The altitude is 202 foet fix>m

at the rate of £8 per cent The amount the pavement, the diameter of the shafk

of bank-stock capital, in the year 1750, 15 feet, the pedestal 40 feet hiffh, and its

was £10,780,000 ; it is now £14,553,000. pHnUi 28 feet square. The mscripliOB>

The average price, during the year 1829,^ ascribing the Are to the Catholics, baa

waa £3ia (See BanL) In no part of been lately efihced. Besides the publie

the worid is the poat-ofilGe system con- edifices already noticed, axe the new pol-^

ducted on a seale of such magnitude^ aoe of Buckinf^am house, Wealminsler

vmikoce^weearitjfViAepeedofcouaaxir lo^titd eouncil office^ tiM baaqoaiioc

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LONDON.

hovse at Whitehall, and privale reoi-
dencesy Melbome house (Whitehall), and
fiurlingtoD house (Piccadilly). Sl James's
palace, Pall mall, is an irresular brick
building, originally built as an nospital for
lepeirB, Though totally destitute of exter-
nal b^EiUty, its internal arrangements are
well calculated for state purposes, and it
contains many spacious and superb apart-
ments, where the royal court levees and
drawing-rooms are held. The archiepis-
copal palace of Lambeth is a pile of great
antiquity, forming the town residence of
the archbishops of Cantert>uiy, and at
present being siknost entirely rebuilt. The
grounds are extensive and beautifully laid
out It contains, among other apartments,
a chapel, gallery, Ubrary, containmg 25,000
volumes, and the Lollards' tower, used in
popish times as a prison for the reformers
of that designation. The Admiralty is
fronted by a lofty and most ill-propor-
tioned Ionic portico, and separated u-om
Whitehall by a light screen. It contains
the offices and residences of the commis-
sioners of the admiralty, and is near the
Horse-guards, a hideous edifice, wherein
the commander-in-chief holds his levees,
and transacts military affairs. An arched
gate-way communicates with St. James's
park. The house of lords, in Old Pal-
ace yard, is not remarkable for architec-
tural beauty. The peers assemble in a
room, the walls of which are hung with
tapestiy representing the defeat of the
Spanish armada. The house of com-
mons holds its meetings in an ancient
chapel, called St, l^enhen^ adjoining
Westminster hall, plainly fitted up, and
affording but stinted accommodation for
the 650 members of whom that body is
composed. It was originally founded by
king Stephen, and rebuilt by Edward III,
in 1347. It communicates with the
speaker's house, a commodious and hand-
some residence. The Tower of Loudon
is an extensive pile, situated on the north-
em bank of the Thames, below London
bridge, separated from the river bv a plat-
form, and environed by a ditch of consid-
erable depth and width. Its walls enclose
an area of 12 acres, having the principal
entrance on the west. (See Tower,) The
general destination of the Tower was
altered on the accession of queen Eliza-
beth, for it had been a royal palace during
500 years previous to that event Anoth-
er class of edifices, partaking gomewhat
of a public character, are the club-houses,
situated, chiefly, within the precincts of St
James's street. Pall mall, and Regent street
Crockford's^ in Qt James's street, is unri-

valled in die splendor of its intemal deco-
rations, and presents an external elevation
of chaste architectural elegance ; but its
object is avowedly gambhng, and its fas-
cinations h^ve been the ruin of many.
The athenaeum is a very beautiful struc-
ture, erected by Mr. Burton on part of
the site of Carlton palace, and oppo-
site to the senior united service club.
The university, the union, the oriental,
Brookes', and the junior united service
club houses, are also handsome and com-
modious. — Ancient London, The origin
of London is involved in deep obscurity ;
but it certainly was a strobg-nold of tne
Britons before the Roman invasion. The
etymology of its name is variously traced ;
the most probable supposition deriving it
from two British wonls, Uvn and (/in, sig-
nifying the town on the lake. Its Romaa
designation, ./^i^^ltuto, marks it as the capi-
tal of a province ; and Tacitus speaks of
Londiniujn, or CdontaAugwftOy as a com-
mercial mart of considenmie celebrity in
the yeai' 61. It was subsequently noted
as a large and wealthy city, in the time of
the emperor Severus, and regarded as the
metropolis of Great Britain. A few ves-
tiges of die original walls are still discov-
erable in London wall, in the courts be-
tween Ludgate hill and the Broadway,
Blackfriars, and in Cripplegate church-
yard. It had four principal gates, open-
ing to the four great military roads, and
others were subsequently formed, but
their names alone commemorate their ex-
istence. Ailer the Roman forces had
been withdrawn fi'om Britain, in the fifth
centur}', London fell successively under
the dominion of the Britons, Saxons, and
Danes. It was nominated a bisliop's see,
on the conveision of the Saxons to Chris-
tianity, in 604, and a cathedral church
was erected in 610, where St Paul's now
stands. Its importance in the year 833,
appears fix>ra a ffiUena^mot havinff been
held here ; and under the reign of Alfi^d,
w!*.o gained possession of it in 884, its
municipal government was planned^ which
has since been gradually moulded into the
form described m a preceding part of this
notice. Its wealth seems to have rapidly
increased during the reign of Edward the
Confessor ; and, on the conquest by Wil-
ham I, in 1066, it assumed that station
which it has ever since retained, as the
metropolis of the kingdom, having re-
ceived from that monarch a charter, still
preserved in the city archives, and beauti-
fully written in Sucon characters. The
privileges of the city were further extend-
ed by a chaiter of Henry I, 'm 1100 ; aod»

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LONDON.

eariy in the Mgn of Richard I, the title ot
meyor was suMituted for that of baUiff'y
-which had preyiously designated the chief
magistrate of London« In the reign of
Edward III (1348), it was ravaged bv a
pestilence, during which 50,000 bodies
were interred in the sround now fbrming
the precincts of the Charter house. The
▼ear 1380 was maiked by the insurrection
beaded by Wat Tyler, and suppressed by
the courage of sir William Walworth,
mayor of London. A similar, but equally
unsuccessful attempt, threatened the safe-
ty of the metropolis in the year 1450, when
it was assailed Dy Jack Cade and a power-
ful body of malecontents. During tlie
rei^ of Edward IV, we hare the earliest
notice of bricks being employed in the
building of houses in London. Cisterns
and conduits for water were constructed,
and the city was generally lighted at nieht
by lanterns. A dreadful visitation, ccdled
the mpeating'sickness, desolated the city in
1485, soon after the accession of Henry
VU, during whose reign the river Fleet
was made navigable to Holbom bridge,
and the splendid chapel, called afler that
monarch, was appended to Westminster
abbey. Many valuable improvements in
the municipal regulations of the city, its
police, streets, markets, &c., were effected
durinff the reign of his successor, Hen-
ly VfiL The reim of Edvrard VI wit-
nessed the establiuiment of Christ's hos-
piml. Bridewell, and St Thomas's hos-
pital ; and, under the sway of Elizabeth,
the metropolis increased, witla surprising
rapidity, in commercial enterprise and
general prosperity. The plague renewed
Its ravages soon after the accession of
James I, in 1603, when upwards of 30,000
persons feU victims to it Sir Hugh Mid-
dleton, about that time also, commeifced
his great work of supplymg the inhab-
itants with water from the New river;
and the pavements were improved for the *
comfort of pedestrians. The reign of
Charles I vras marked by a recurrence of
the plague, which carried off 35,000 of
the inhabitants. It returned in the year
1665, with unparalleled fuiy. This aw-
ful viatation swept away 100,000 of the
inhabitants within 13 months. It was
shortly after followed by the great lire,
vrfaich broke out on the 2d September,
1666; and raged with irresistible fury, until
it coDsamed 89 churches,'13,200 dwelling-
houses^ and 400 streets, the city gates,
Guildhall, numerous public structures,
hoapitate, schools, libraries and stately
edinces, leaving a ruined apace of 496
fiom the Tower to the Temple

church, and from the noith-east pte,
along die city wall, to Holbom tnndge.
and destroying property to the estimated
amount of £10,000,000. Within less than
five years after this terrible calamity, the
city was almost wholly rebuilt, in a style
of far greater regularity, security, com-
modiousness and salubrity. Alter the
revolution of 1688, the metrop<^ rapidly
expanded, and, in 1711, the population
was found to have so gready increased,
that an act of parliament passed for the
building of 50 new churches. The win-
ter of 1739 — 40 is memorable for the
occurrence of the most intense frost re-
corded in the annals of England ; it con-
tinued for eight weeks, and the Thames,
above London bridge, became a solid
mass, on which thousands of the citizens
assembled daily as to a fair. The reign
of George III wimessed a great extension
of the splendor, comforts and elegances
of social life in London. The north of
the metropolis became covered with spa-
cious streets, squares, churches and pub-
lic edifices. The thoroughfares were ren-
dered safe and clean ; the enormous signs
and protruding incumbrances of the shops
were removed. Blackfriars, Southwark
and Waterloo bridges, Someraet house,
Manchester, and other squares, at the
West End, were erected, and the vast
parish of Marylebone almost covered with
Duildings. In 1780, an insurrection, com-
posed of the lowest rabble, threatened
very alarming consequences to the peace
of the city. The prisons of Newgate, the
King's Bench and the Fleet were burned,
and militaiy interference was necessaiy to
ouell the disturbances. In 1794, a dread-
ful fire broke out in Ratclifie highway,
and consumed 700 houses. The jubilee
of Greorge Ill's accession was commemo-
rated on the 25th October, 1809, and the
mnd civic festival to the emperor of
Russia, king of Prussia, and other distin-
guished foreigners, was given, by the cor-
poration of London, in Guildhall, at an
expense of £20,000, in die year 1814, the
winter of which was memorable fi>r a
frost of six weeks' contmuance and ex-
treme intensity. During the regency and
reign of George IV, the grand avenue
of Regent street, the unfinished palace
of Buckingham house, the splendid ter-
races on the site of Carlton gardens, the
widenings of Charing cross, Pall mall,
and the Strand, vnx>ught a great change
in the West End of the metropolis. Much
curious information upon the histoiy, an-
tiquities and progressive improveinents ot
London will be found in the woiks <^

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LONDON— ix>N€k:;hamp.

Stowe and Maidaad, in Pennent^s ** Some
Account of London," and in the work of
Brayley, Brewater and Ni|^ttnflale, en-
titled <* London, Weatminatei' and Middle-
sex described," in 5 vols. 8yo.

LoRDoifDSRRT, Robeit Stewart, mar-
quis o( the second son of the first roar-
3UUI, was bom in the north of Ireland,
une 18, 1769, and was educated at Ar-
ma^ afler which he became a commoner
of St. John's college, Cambridge. On
leaving the uniTersity, he made the tour
of Europe, and, on his return, was chosen
a member of the Irish parliament He
joined the opposition, in the first place,
and declared himself an advocate for par-
liamentary reform; but, on obtaining a
seat in the British parliament, he took his
station on the nunisterial benches. In
1797, having then become lord Casde-
reagh, he returned to the Irish parliament,
an{ the same year, became keeper of the
privy seal for that kingdom, and was
soon after appointed one of the lords of
the treasury. The next year, he was nom-
inated secretary to the lord-lieutenant, and,
by his strenuous exertions, and abilities in
the art of removing opposition, the union
with Ireland was greatly fecilitated. In
the united parliament, he sat as member
for the county of Do vm, and, in 1802, was
made president of the board of control.
In 1805, he was appointed secretary of
war and the colonies ; but, on the death
of Mr. Pitt, he retired, until the dissolution
of the brief administration of 1806 restored
him to the same situation in 1807; and
he held his office until the ill-fated expe-
dition to Walcheren, and his duel with
his colleague, Mr. Canning, produced his
resignation. In 1812, he succeeded the
marauis of Wellesley as foreign secretary,
and tne foilowingyear proceeded to the con-
tinent, to assist the coalesced powers Id ne-
gotiating a general peace. His services after
me capture of Napoleon, and in the gene-
ral pacification and arrangements which
have been usually designated by the phrase
the set&ement of Europe, form a part of
history. It is sufficient to notice here,
that he received the public thanks of par-
liament, and was honored with the order
of the iiarter. On the death of his father,
in Apnl, 1821, he succeeded him in the
Irish manjuisate of Londonderry, but still
retained his seat in the Briti^ house of
commcms, where he acted as leader. Af-
ter the arduous session of 1822, in which
bis labor was unremitting, his mind yns
observed to be much shattered ; but, un-
hippily, although his physician vras ap-
pmed of it, he was lunered to leave Lon-

don fi>r hla seat at Noitfa Gray, in Kest^
where, in August, 1829, he terminated hai
life by infficting a wound in his neck, with
a penknife, of which he died almost in-
stantiy. This statesman has been censured
for a severe, rigid, and persecuting domestic
government, and for an undue countenance
of despotic encroachment and arrangement
OS regards the social progress of Europe.
His party and supporters, in answer to
these strictures, for the most part, plead po-
litical necessity and expediency, while no
small portion of them defend his views on
the ground of principle. He was an active
man of business, and a ready, although not
an elegant orator. His remains were in-
terred, in Westminster abbey, with ^p^
ceremony, but not without an exhibiticm
of popular ill-wilL (See Man, qf ike laU
MarquU qf Londondtny, London, 1829.)
He was succeeded in his tide bv his hall^
brother, lieutenant-colonel lord Stewart,
who was, for some time, ambassador to
Prussia, and afterwards to Vienna. His
lordship is author of a Narrative of the
Peninsular War (second edition, London,
1828),and a Narrative of the War in Ger-
many and France, in 1813 and 1814, and
is a member of the British house of peer%
as earl Vane.

LoNGCHABiP ; a promenade of the Pa-
risian fashionables, on the right bank of
the Seine, about four miles below the capfr-
taL It 'wasoDce a convent, founded by Isa-
bella, sister of St. Louis, where she spent
her last years, and^terminated her life, Feb.
22,1269. The convent was then called the
Abbaye de VkumUtU de JSTotre Dam/ty and the
credulity of the times ascribed to the bones
of Isabella, who was buried there, such
miraculous powers, that Leo X canonized
her in 1521. 116 years after, the bonea
of Isabella, with the permisaon of Uihan
VIII, were collected in the presence of
the archbishop of Paris, and, like oth«r
relics, set in ffold and silver. Two other
princesses pf France also died there-
Blanche, daughter of Philip the Long^
who likewise ended his life at this place,
Jan. 3, 1321, and Jeanne of Navaira.
Previous to the revolution, Lmigchamp
was a place of resort of the Parisian hum
monde and of the English. It is stiU r^
lated, that on those days when it was a part
of Ion ton to repair thither (Wednesday,
Thursday and Friday of Passion week),
some of the English carried their luzuiy
80 far, as to make the shoes of their hones
and the tires of their coach wheels of sil-
ver, on these promenades. In the benii-
ning of the revoltition, when the wief
of f^tfignhamp, like tibe

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LONGCHAMP-^LONGEVITY.

ef Fiaiioe in genenl, was abofiflhed, and
the buildings partially demolished, the
0plendor of this place was destroyed ; bat
under the consulate, when wealth again
dared to display ibself openly, Longchamp
recovered its ancient brilliancy, and again
offered the Parisian ladies an opportunity
of exhibiting their charms. Tailien and
Recamier were then the stars in this fii^
mament of &shion and beauty. Under
the imperial government, the splendor of
Longchamp was somewhat cuminished,
owing partly to Napoleon's contempt for
fiivolous exhibitioDS, partly to the con-
tinued wars, which withdrew great num-
bers of rich young men from the capital.
After the restoiatioD, the promenade of
Longchamp was almost wholly neglected.
But more recently, it has again recovered
some of its former splendor.

LoffOEviTT. The extreme limit of hu-
man life, and the means of attaining it, have
been a subject of general interest, both in
aocient and modem times, and the physi-
ologist and political economist are alike
itliacted by the inquiry. It is for the stu-
dent of biblical antiquities to decide in
what sense we are to understand the word
fear in the scriptural accounts of the an-
tediluvians ; whether it signifies a revolu-
tion of tlie sun or of the moon, or wheth-
er their extreme longevity is only the cre-
ation of tradition. £i the sense which we
now ffive to the word year, the accounts
would make the constitution of men at.
the period referred to, very different from
what it is at present, or has been, at
any period fiom which observations on
the duration of hunum life have been
trBosmitted to us. The results of all these
oljservations, in regard to the length of
fife in ^iven circumstances, do not essen-
tialty differ. Pliny affords some valuable
Htat i s d cal information, if accurate, regard-
ing the period at which he lived, obtmned
from an official, and, apparently, authentic
source, — the census, directed b^ the em-
peror Vespasian, in the year 76 of^e Chris-
tian era. From this we learn that, at the
time of the computation, there were, in the
part of Italy comprised between the Ap-
ennines and the Po, 124 individuals aged
100 years and upwards, viz. 54 of 100
years, 57 of 110, 2 of 125, 4 of 130, 4 of
135 to 137, and 3 of 140. At Parma, a
man was living aged 120, and 2 aged }30;
at Faenza, a female aged 132; and at a
naall town near Placentia, called Velleia-^
ehmijhved 6 persons aged 110 years each,
and 4 of 120. These estimates, however,
do not accord vnth thoeo of Ulpian, who
ioems to have taken especial care to be-

come acquainted with die fects of dke
case. His researches prove that the ex-
pectati<M] of life in Rome, at that time, was
much less than it now is in London, or in
any of our cities. Hufeland, indeed, in his
Jklacrofrioficc, asserts that the tablesofUlpian
agree perfectly with those afforded by the
great cities of Europe, and that they exhibit
tiie probabilities of life in ancient Rome
to have been the same as those of modem
London. But doctor F. Bisset Hawkins,
in his Elements of Medical Statistics (Lon-
don, 1829), says that the tables, kept by
the censors fer 1000 ^ears, and constituting
registers of populauon, sex, age, disease,
&C., according to Ulpian (who was a law-
yer, and a minister of Alexander Seve-
rus), refer only to free citizens, and that, to
drew a just comparison between Rome
and London, it would be necessary to
take, amone the inhabitants of the latter
city, only Uiose who were similarly cir-
cumstanced, viz. those whose condition is
easy ; in which case, the balance would
be gready in fevor of modem times. Mr.
Fiiuayson has ascertained, from very ex-
tensive observation on the decrement of
life prevailing amoUje the nominees of the
Tontines, and other life annuities, granted
by tile authority of porhnment, during the
last 40 years, that the expectation of life is
above SOyears for persons thus situated,
which affords the easy classes of England
a superiority of 20 years above even the
easy classes among the Romans. The
mean term of life among the easy classes
of Paris is, at present, 42 years, which
gives tiiem an advantage of 12 years above
tiie Romans. In the third centuir of the
Christian era, the expectation of life in
Rome was as follows: From birth to 20,
tiiere was a probability of 30 years ; from
20 to 25, of 28 years; from 25 to 30, 25
years ; from 30 to 35, 22 years ; from 35
to 40, 20 years; from 40 to 45, 18 years;
from 45 to 50, 13 years ; from 50 to 55, 9
years ; from 55 to 60, 7 years ; from 60 to
65, 5 years. Farther tiian this the com-
putation did not extend. The census
taken from time to time in England
affords us information of an unquestion-
able character. The first actual enumer-
ation of the inhabitants was made in 1801,
and gave an annual mortahty of 1 in 448.
The third and last census was made in
1821, and showed a mortality of 1 to 58.
(See Abstract qf (he Answers and Rduma
made jnarsuanl to an Ad passed in the Year
<lf Qeorge IF, &c., by Rickman.) The
mortaliw then had decreased considerably
within 20 years. In France, the aimttu
deaths were, in 1781, 1 in 29; in 1808,1

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LONGEVITY.

in aO; in 1833^1 in 4a In the Pays de

Vjaud,the mortality is 1 to 49; in Sweden
and Holland, 1 to 48; in Russia, 1 to 41;
in Austria, 1 to 38. Wherever records
have been kept, we find that mortali^has
decreased with civilization. Periiaps a
few more persons reach extreme old age
amoDff nations in a state of litde cultiva-
tion ; hut it is certain that more children
die, and the chance of life, in general, is
much less. In Geneva, records of mortal-
ity have been kept since 1590, which show
that a child bora there has, at present, five
times greater expectation of life than one
born three centuries ago. A like improve-
ment has taken place in the salubrity of
large towns. The annual mortality of
London, in 1700, was 1 in 25 ; in 1751, 1
in 21 ; in 1801, and the 4 years preceding,
1 in 35; in 1811, 1 in 38; and in 1821, 1
in 40 ; the value of hfe having thus
doubled, in London, within the last 80
veaEi. In Paris, about the middle of the
last century, the mortality was 1 in 25 ; at
present, it is about 1 in 32; and it has

been calculated tbat» in the feoiteentb
oentunr, it was one in 16 or 17. The
annual mortali^ in Beilin has decreased
during the last 50 or 60 years, from 1 in
28 to 1 in 34. The mortaliw in Manches-
ter was, about the middle of the last cen-
tury, 1 in 25; in 1770, 1 in 28 : 40 yean
afkerwards, in 1811, the annual deaths
were diminished to 1 in 44 ; and, in 1821,
they seem to have been sdll fewer. In
the middle of the last cenmry, the mortal-
ity of Vienna was 1 in 20 ; it has not,
however, improved in the same propor-
tion as some of the other European cities.
According to recent calculation, it is, even
now, 1 in 224, or about twice the propor-
tion of Philadelphia, Manchester or Glas-
ffow. Many vears ago, Mr. Finlayson
drew up the following table, to exhibit the
difference in the viuue of life, at two
periods of the seventeenth and eigh-
teenth centuries. Had it been calculaied
for 1830, the results would have been still
more remarkable.

AfM.

So Uwt die IneraMo of Vi-
tality it iu tho inverM
B&tiooflOOto

1689.

1789.

TMri.

Tmk.

Yean.

41.05

51^20

125

38.93

48^28

124

31.91

41.33

130

27.57

36.09

131

22.67

29.70

131

17.31

22.57

130

12.29

15.52

126

7.44

10.39

140

The following is*the annual mortality of
some of the chief cities of Europe and
this country r

Philadelphia, 1 in 45.68

Glasgow, ...., Iin44

Manchester, 1 in 44

Geneva, 1 in 43

Boston,. . 1 in 41^

London, J in 40

New York, 1 in 37.83

St Petersburg, 1 in 37

Charleston, 1 in 36^

Baltimore, 1 in 35.44

Leghorn, 1 in 35

Berhn, Iin34

Paris, Lyons, Barcelona and

Strasburg, 1 in 32

?nce and Palermo^ 1 in 31

Madrid, 1 in 29

Naples, Im2d

Brussels,. •..Iin26

Rome, Iin25

Amsterdam, 1 in 24

Vienna, 1 in 22i

From Dec 12, 1828, to Dec. 15, 1829, in
London, die whole number of deaths was
23,525. The proportion of deaths, m dif.
ferent ages, was as follows :

Under two years of age, 6710

Between two and five, 2347

Five and ten, 1019

Ten and twenty, 949

Twenty and thirty, 1563

Thirty and forty, 1902

Forty and fifty, 2093

Fitly and sixty, 2094

Sixty and seventy, 2153

Seventy and eigfa^, 1843

Eighty and ninety, 749

Ninety and one hundred, 96

One hundred and one, 1

One hundred and eight, 2

On the average of eight yean, fi:om 1807

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LONGEVmr* 71

to 1814 indium^ diero died anntully pear to be more iojurioiu to long life than

'Within the citjr of Philadelphia and the many othen. Many of the tint literati,

Libertiea, the n>llowiog proportion of per- most distinguished for applicadon through-

■oii8,of different ages, compared with the out life, have attained old age, both in

total number of deaths: modem and ancient times. In the an-

.. - %P^ c^c°^ authors, numerous instances of this

Under one year, ^07 i^^ ^le recorded, many of which may

From OTO to two yean, 10.71 be found collected in the work of Hufe*

Two to five, 5.^ Ij^nd, ah«idy alluded to.— We vnU add a

^ive to ten, AW f^^ instances of extiaordinary longevity.

rentotwenty, 3.^ j^^ EngUshman Pair, whovnis bom m

Twenty to ^rty, 8.^ 1483, married when at the age of 120, re-

Thirty to forty, 10.^ ^ined his vigor till 140, and died at the

v^t^ ' l^ a«e of 152, from plethora. Harvey, the

intty to BOrty, a^ distinguished discoverer of the ciroulation

Sixty to seventy, 4.^ ^f^^ blood, who dissected him, found no

^venty to eighty, 3.^ decav of any organ. (Philosophical Trans-

Eighty to mnety, 1.89 ^jctwM, vol. iii, 1698.) Henry Jenkins,

Nmety to one hundred, . . . . 0.50 ^ho died in Yorkshire, in 1670, is, per-

One hundred to one hundred ten, 0.0009 baps, the greatest authentic instance of

Another question of interest is the inquiiy longevity. He lived 169 years. Marga-

in what degree the various trades and ret Forster, a native of Cumberland, Eng-

profesBions are favorable to human life, or land, died in 1771, aged 136 ; and James

the contrary. Several statements have Lawrence, a Scotchman, lived 140 years,

lately been publi^ed respecting this sub- A Dane, named Drakenberg, died in 1772^

ject, but tardier and more copious obser- in his 147tli year; and John Effingham,

vadons are required, to afibrd satisfactory or Essingham, died in Comwall, in 1757,

results.* Utcwy occupations do not ap- aged 144. In 1792, a soldier, named

*T1ie Literary Gazette ^ves, in a tabular fonn, bomiet-makera are unhealthy and ghort-lived.

the resulu of a work on this subject, from the pen Spinners, clolh-drftssers, weavers, &c., are more

of Mr. Thackrah, an eminent surgeon; of Leeds.-- or less healthy, according as they have more or

(hi-of-doar occupations. Butctors are subject to less exercise and air. Those exposed to inhale

few aihnents, and these the result of plethora, imperceptible particles of dressings, &c., such as

Though more free from diseases than other trades, frizcrs. sufier nrom disease, and are soonest cut

thej, DoweTcr, do not enjoy greater lon^vity: off*. Shoemakers are placed in a bad posture.

on the contrary, Mr. Thackrah thinks their lives Digestion and circulation are so much impaired,

shorter than those of other men who spend much that the countenance marks a shoemaker almost

time in the open air. Cattle and norse-deal- as well as a tailor. We suppose that, from the

crs are generally healthy, except when thehr reduction of perspiration, and other evacuations,

habits are intemperate. Fish-mongers, though in this and similar employments, the blood is im*

much exposed to the weather, are nanly, tem- pure, and, consequent! v, the complexion darken-

perate, bealthv and long-lived ) cart-drivers, if ed. The secretion of Bile is generally unhealthy,

sofficientlv fed, and temperate, the same. La- and bowel complaints are friM]uent In the few

borars m DosbandrVj ^., suffer frxwi a deficiency shoemakers who live to old sige, there is oAcm a

of Dourisfament Bnckmakers, with fiill muscular remarkable hollow at the base of the breast-bone,

exercise in the open air, though exposed to vicis- occasioned by the pressure of the last. Curners

nnides of cold and wet, avoid liieumatism and and leather-dressers are Terr healthy, and live to

inflanmiatofy diseases, and attain good old age. old age. Saddlers lean mucn forwara^and sufier,

Paviers are subject to complamta in the loins, m- accordingly, from headachQ and mdigestjon.

cnesing with age, bat they live long. Chmse- Printers (our worthy coOperators) are kept in a

drivertf jxwtilions, coachmen, guards, &c., from confined atmosphere, and generally want exercise,

the position of the two former on the saddle, irreg- Pressmen, however, have good and varied labor,

alar Unni^, ice, and from the Want of muscular The constant application of the eyes to minute

exereise, m the two latter, are subject to gastric objects gradually enfeebles these organs. The

disorders, and, finally, to apoplexy and palsy, standing posture, long maintained here, as well as

which sborteq tbor fives. Carpenters, coopers, in other occupations, tends to injure the digestive

/wheelwrights, &c., are healthy and lotig-hved. organs. Some printers complam of disoi^er of

Smiths are oAen intemperate, and die compara- the stomach and head, and few appear to enjoy

tively young. Rope-makers and sardeners suffer fiili health. Consumption is finequent. We can

finom their stoopingpostures.—-.£»-aoorocciipa<iofu. scarcely finder hear of any compositor above the

Tukrs, notwithstanding their confined atmos- age of ISO, In many towns, prmters are intern-

plwre and bad posture, are not liable to acute werate. Bookbinders,— a healthy employment,

diseases, but give way to stomach complaints Carvers and gilders look pale and weakly, but

sod consumption. The pr^odicial influence of theur lives are not abbreviated in a marked de-

their employment is more insidious than umnt : me. Clock-makers are generally healthy and

it mderaiines rather than destroys life. Stay- loog-lived j watch-makers, the reverse. Howe

mfcen have their health hnpaired, but live to a servants, in larse, smoky towns, are unhealthy,

good age. MiUiners, dress-makers and straw- CoUiin and weu-iinkeny-^« class by themselvesi

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LONOEVITY.

Mittebtedt, died in Pruflsia, at the age of
112. Joseph Somngton, a Norwegian,
died at Bergen, in 1797, aged IGO yean.
The St Petenburg papers announced, in
1830, the death of a man 150 yean old, at
Moscow ; and, in 1831, the death of a man
in Ruasia, 165 years old, was reported.
On May 7, 1830, died a man named John
Ripkey, at the age of 106, in London.
His sight remained good till the last In
1830, a poor man, near lake Thrasimene,
died 123 years old. He preserved his
faculties to the last In 18S25, pope Leo
XII gave him a pension. The late return
of the population of the city of New York,
according to the census of 1830, makes the
number of those who live beyond the
allotted three-score and ten, in the propor-
tion of about If per cent of the whole
number. Although the number of white
males exceeds that of females 1861, yet, of
those who are upwards of 70, 8009, the
excess is in favor of the females, there
being 4175 of the latter, and but 3834 of
the tormer. Of the 17 white persons above
a hundred, 15, on the contrary, are males ;
and of the 45 blapk persons, a hundred
and upwards, only 11 are males. The
proportion of centenarians among the

—seldom reach the age of BO.—Employmmts
producing duHy odor, or gtueoiu ejaiamtions.
These are not uijurious. if they arise from animal
substances, or from the vapor of wine or spirits.
Tobacco manufacturers do not appear to suffer
finom the floating poison in their atmosphere.
Snuff makinr is more pernicious. Men in oil-mills
are generally healthy. Brush-makers live to a
great age. Grooms emd hostlers inspire ammoni-
acal gas, and are robust, healthy, and long-lived.
Glue and size boilers, exposed to the most nox-
ious stench, are fresn-looking and robust. Tal-
low-chandlers, also exposed to offensive animal
odor, attain considerable age. Tanners are re-
markably strong, and exempt from consumption.
Corn-millers, breathinr an atmosphere loaded with
flour, are pate and sickly, and very rarely attain
old age. Malsters cannot live long, and must
leave the trade in middle life. Tea-men suffer
from the dust, especially of green teas ; but this
injury is not permanent. Coffee-roasters become
asthmatic, and. subject to headache and indiges-
tion. Paper-makers, when aged, cannot endure
the effect of the dust from cutting the rags. The
author suggests the use of machinery in this pro-
cess. In the wet and wear and tear of the mills,
they are not seriously affected, but live long.
Masons are short-lived, dying generally before
40. They inhale particles of sand and dust, lifl
heavy weights, and are too often hitemperate.
Miners die prematurely. Machine-makers seem
to suffer only from the dust they inhale, and the con-
sequent bronchial irritation. The (iron) filers are
almost all unhealthy men, and remarkably short-
lived. Founders (m brass) suffer from the inha-
lation of the volatilized metal. In the founding of
yellow brass, in particular, the evolution of oxide
of zinc is very g^eat. They seldom reach 40
jean. Copper-smiths ara considerably affected

Macks* 18 much krfer than among the
whites, making all pNPoper allowances for
their exaggeration and ignorance^ — ^Bel*'
sham's Chronology informs ns that 21
peraons, who had attained the age of 130
jmd upwards, died between the years
1760 and 1829: of these, one was aged
lG6u In the same period, 39 had attained
the age of 120, and not 130. The num-
ber who attaloed the age of 110, and not
120, was 36 in the same fflMice. And thooe
who died after the age of 100, and before
110, were 54 within the period. Of the
whole number recorded, 94 were natives
of England, 23 of Ireland, and 12 of Rus-
sia. Doubdess many more have died
after the age of 100, without having had
their names recorded. The northern cli-
mates aflbrd more instances of longevity
than the southern ; and, although far the
greater part of those who have attained
extreme old age have been distinguished
for sobriety, yet some of them do not
appear to have been in the habit of
restraining their appetites. In China,
where old age is much respected,
people receive presents from govern-
ment, when they have attained a great
age.

by the fine scales which rise from the imperfectly
volatilized metal; and by tlie fumes of the spelter.
or solder of brass. The men are generally un-
healthy, suffering from disorders similar to those
of the brass-founders. Tic-plate- workers are
subjected to fumes from muriate of ammonia, and
sulphureous exhalations from the coke which they
burn. These exhalations, however, appear to be
aimoying, rather than injurious, as the men are
tolerably healthy, and live to a considerable a^.
Tinners, also, are subject only to temporary in-
convenience from the fumes of the soldering.
Plumbers are exposed to the volatilized oxide of
lead, which rises during the process of casting.
They are sickly in appearance, and short-lived.
House-painters are unnealthy^ and do not ^i>-
cn-ally attain full age. Chemists and druggists,
in la^ratories, are sickly and consumptive. Pot-
ters, affected through the pores of the skin, be-
come paralytic, and are remarkal)ly subject to
constipation. Hatters, grocers, bakers and chim-
ney sweepers (a droll association) also suffer
through the skin; but, although the. irritation oc-
casions diseases, they are not, except in the last
class, fatal. Dyers are healthy and long-lived.
Brewers are, as a body, far from healthy. Under
a robust and often ^rid appearance, they con-
ceal chronic diseases of the abdomen, particularly
a congested state of the venous system. When
these men are accidentally hurt or wounded, they
are more liable than other individuals to severe
and dangerous effects. Cooks and confectioner!
are subjected to considerable heat. Our common
cooks are more unhealthy than house-maids.
Their digestive organs are frequently disordered :
they are subject to headache, and their tempers
rendered irritable. Glass-workers are beallhy.
Glass-blowers oileo die suddenly.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LONOm-LOMO ISLAND.

Lownn, Jofleph, engmver, boni 1768; in
die SlatfiB of the Church, went, duriog die
polbkal djatmhaooes in Italy (1797)^ to Mi*
Ian, wliere he diatinguishea nimaelf, and
aurpaaaedyin diawii^;, thefiunouaMoighen.
No hving engraver ia able to repreaent
fleah with aoch truth. He ia maater of
every speciea of ensmving, but aubjecta
technical acience to the true object of the
art. Id the style which combinea etching
with the application of the burin, he but-
paaaes the moat distinguiahed of his pre-
deceasors. In thia department, are hia
Philoaopher, from Rembrandt, and Dando-
lo, from MettrinL His Magdalen, after
Coiremo, represents, with an almost inde-
Bcribebke exactness, the softnesa and trans-
parency of tint admired in the original.
His Galatea floating in a shell, from a
painting by Albano, is equally excellent
kaphaers Vision of Ezekiel he has also
engraved in a masterly manner. His
original pieces, as, for instance. Pan pur-
suing Syrinx, from the first book of Ovid's
Bletamorphoses (finished in 1814) have
also been much admired. His Raphael's
Marriage of the Holy Virgin is worthy of
the original, and is one of the finest en-
gravings of our times. Some fraffments,
which have been published, of his History
of the Art of Engraving, have also given
him a reputation as a writer on this sub-
ject. Eugene Beauhamais, when vice-
roy of Italy, appointed Longfai professor at
the academy of art in Milan, where he
has formed several excellent schelars; he
alao received from that prince the order
of the iron crown.

LoxeiMZTRT; the measuring of lengths
or distances, both accessible and inacces-
sible. Accessible distancea are measured
by the api>hcation of some measure a cer-
tain numoer of times, aa a foot, chain,
&c. And inaccessible distances are meas-
ured by taking angles, &c., by means of
proper instruments, as the cvrcutii/erenf or,
quadrant^ theodolite, &c. This embracea
a great number of cases, according to the
aituation of the object and observer.

LoHoiirua, Cassius ; a Platonic philoso-
pher and celebrated riietorician of the
middle of the third centuiy, A. D* Ac-
cording to some accounts, he was bom at
Emesa, in Syria; according to Ruhnken,
Athena was his birth-place. Greek litera-
ture waa the principal subject of his
studies. At Alexandria, Athens, etc, he
attended the lectures of the most dis-
tinguished scholars. He studied the Stoic
and Peripatetic systems of philosophy,
. but aubsequentiy became an ardent ad-
herent of the Platonic and annually cde-

vou viiK 7

bnled the bifth-dqr ofitt fbontevbya
banquet Hia principal attention waa di-
rected, however, to the study of j^rammar,
criticiam, eloquence and aoti^uitieai At
the invitation of queen Zenobia, he went
to Palmyra to instruct her in Greek learn-
ing and to educate her children. He waa
likewise employed by her in the adminia-
tration of the atate, by which iHeana he
was involved in the &te of this queen.
For when Zenobia waa taken prisoner by
the emperor Aurelian, and could save her
life only by betraying her counsellors,
Longinus, aa the chief of them, was seized
and behraded, A. D. 275. He suffered
death with all the firmneas of a philoso-
pher. Of his works, among which were'
some philosophical onea, none ia extant,
except the treatise On the Sublime, which
goes under his name, and this is in a state
of mutilation. It illustrates, with great
acuteneas and taste, the nature of the
sublime in thought and s^le, by rules and
examples. The best editions are those of
Pearce (1724), of Toup and Ruhnken
(Oxford, 1778). Benj. Weiske's edition
appeared at Leipaic, 1809. There is an
English tnmsluuon of it by Wm. Smith.
Looffinus is usually called Dionymuu but
this has arisen fiom the negligence of^ edi-
tors. The manuscript copy of the trea-
tise On the Sublime, in Paris, and one in
the Vatican, bear the inscription in Greek,
Bv DionysUu or Lotmrns, which appear-
edfin the first printed copies as Dwnysius
LongmuB. The Florence manuscript
beara the inacription AnonymouB, Some
critics have ascribed the woric to Diony-
sius of Halicamaasus, others to another
Lon^nus, while others confess that the
autiior is uncertain.

Long Island, or Nassau Island ; an
island belonging to the state of New York,
extending iSO miles in lenftfa, and vaiv-
ing from 10 to 20 milea in breadth. On
the weat, it is divided from Stateu Island
by the Narrows, and from Manhattan
Island by East river. On the north.
East river and Lon^ Island sound sepa-
rate it from the main land. Its eastern
extremity is Montauk point On the
south, it is washed by tiie ocean. Lon.
7P 47' to 73° 57' W. ; lat 40° 34^ to 4P
lO' N. Like other insular positions, its
climate is more mild than that of the ad-
jacent continent The iaiand is divided
mto three counties — King's, Queen^ and
Suffolk. Sag Harbor is the principal
port The south side of the island is flat
mnd, of a hght, sandy soil, bordered, on
the sea coast, with large tracts of salt
meadow. The soil however, is well

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LONG IgLAND-LONGITUOE.

odoolnted fbr laking gnin, especiaUy Ih-
dian com.' The north aide or the island
is hiUv, and of a strong soil, adapted to
the culture of grain, hay, and fitiits ; and
the eastern part is remaiicably adiqited to
the growth of wood, and supplies, in great
part, the city of New York with this arti-
cle. This ridge, forms Brooklyn and
other heights, known in the revolutionary
war. The principal towns and villages
on the island are Brooklyn, Jamaica, Sag
Harbor, Flatbush, Flushing, Satauket and
Huntington. •

LoffG Island Sound ; a bay, from 3 to
35 mies broad, and about 120 long, ex-
tencBn^the whole length of Long Island,
and dividmg it from Connecticut It
communicates with the ocean at both
ends, and may be considered as extending
from New York on the west to Fisher's
Island on the east. On its northern shore
are the towns of Greenwich, Stamford,
Fairfield, Bridgeport, Milford, New Haven,
Saybrook, New Loudon, Stonington, &c
It receives the Connecticut, Housatonic,
Thames and other rivers.*

Longitude, Oeooraphicai. ; the dis-
tance measured, according to degrees,
minutes, seconds, &c., xm me equator, or
a parallel circle, from one meridian to
another, which is called die first, or prime
meridian. Longitude is divided into
eastern and western. It is alt(^ther in-
dififerent through what point we draw the
first meridian, but it must be setded what
point we adopt In Germany, the Island
of Ferro (q. v.) is generally adopted ; in
France, the observatory at Paris ; in Eng-
land, that of Greenwich ; in Berlin, that
of Berlin ; in the U. States, the meridian
of Washington is sometimes taken as a
first meridian. Some geographers reckon
from the first meridian 180 degrees west,
and the same number east ; others, on the
contrary, reckon the longitude from the
west to die east, the whole length of the
eauator, to 360 degrees. The longitude
of any place, together with the ladtude
(q. v.), is requisite for the determination of
the true situation of the place upon the
earth. From the form of our earui, it fol-
lows that the degrees of longitude must
always decrease towards the poles. The
depnees of latitude, on the contrary, are
all taken as equal to each other, and each
amounts to GO geographical miles. The
measure of a degree of longitude upon
anv parallel of latitude is found by mul-
tiplymg the length of a degree on the

* The most recent chart of Long Island Sounc^
is that Dublished by the Messrs Blunts ^New
V<uk.f 1830.)

equator by the oo-sliie (taking raditiiradtf
to 1) of the latitude of the paralleL Tha
longitude shows the difference of time
between any place and the first meridian.
The sun performing his apparent revolu-
tion mm hotuB,a place which lies 15.
decrees fiuther to the west than another^
wm have noon one hour later. Places
whose difierence of longitude amounts to
180° have opposite seasons of the day,
since in the one place it is mid-day, and
in the other, at the distance of 180P, it is
midnight at the same moment The
difference in longitude of any two places
may be also determined by observations
of the time of certain celestial phenome-
na, taken at both places, such as eclipses
of the moon, occultations of fixed staiB,
and, in particular, the eclipses of Jupiter's
satellites ; and, vice ver$CL, we can, fi^m the
difference of longitude of two places, accu-
rately ascertain the difference of their time.
15° upon die parallel circle correspond-
ing to one hour, P ^ves i! of time, W
rive 1' of time, 15" give 1" of time, &c.
The difference of longitude between Bos-
ton and London may serve as an example.
This difference is 71°, 4', 9^' ; consecjuent-
ly, noon at London is 4 hours 44 mmutes
and 6 seconds earlier than at Boston.
The determination of longitude at sea, or
of the situation of a ship at any moment,
is hijfhly difficult and important. The
English parliament, in 1714, ofi[ered a re-
ward of £20,000 for an accurate method
of finding the longitude at sea, within
one half of a degree ; but this act was re-
pealed July 15, 1828. A watch which
should preserve a uniform motion, was the
most suitable means that could be afford-
ed to the navigator, who might, fit}m the
difference of me time of noon on board
the ship, and the time by the watch, imme-
diately determine the difference between
the longitude of the place for which the
watch was regulated, and that wherein the
ship then was. Harrison (q. v.) was the
first who invented a chronometer of the
requisite accuracy. Upon the first voyage,
it deviated only two minutes in four
months. Other artists folk>wed, namely,
Kendall, Mudge, Berthoud, Le Roy, &c. ;
and Arnold and Emery have lately pre-
pared such accurate chronometers, that
they have been used for the determination
of longitude upon land, as well as at sea,
with great success. Nevertheless, astro-
nomi(»d observations furnish the most ex-
act methods Qf determining longitude.
As eclipses and occultations are compara-
tively rare, and are somewhat difficult of
calculation, the distances of the moon

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LONGITUDE— LQPN.

ftom the sun or aome of the fixed itus
have been adopted for the calculation of
longitude, because these can be measured
aloKMit every night, and an accurate
knowledge of the moon's orbit is the only
thing requisite thereto. — LongUtuU in the
heavens, as that of a star, &.c^ is an arc
of the ecliptic comprehended between the
first of Aries, and a circle perpendicular
to the ecliptic^possing through the place
of the star. The computation is made
according to the signs of the ecliptic
The longitude of a star is found by means
of its ri^t ascension and declination. It
changes on account of the precession of
the equinoxes. (See EqumoXj and Pre-
eesnori.)

LoNGus, author of a Greek pastoral ro-
mance, the subject of which is the loves
of Daphnis and Chloe, probably lived in
the time of Theodosius the Great. Noth-
iiu^isknovni of the circumstances of his
hte, nor is he mentioned by any of the
ancients. His work is interesting by its
poetical spirit, ^phic description and
style. The earlier editions, of which Vil-
kuson's is the best, do not contain the
work in so complete a state as that of
Courier (Paris, 1810). He supplied, fix)m
a Florentine manuscript, an important
chasm, but, having taken a copy of it, was
careless or mean enough to render the
page of the manuscript which contained
that narration, illegible bv an enormous
ink-spot. This spot, the Dbrerian, Del Fu-
ria, Justly indignant, has laid l)efore the
eyes of the public in an engraving, with
an account of the whole affair.
LorrowooD. (See SI. Helena.)
Loo-Choo, or LiEou-KiEou, or Lew-
Chew ; a group of islands in the Pacific
ocean to the south of Japan and east of
China, to which tliey are (inbutary. Lat
ae° to2r 4(y N. ; ion. 127° W to 129° E.
But little was known to us of these islands
until they were visited by Maxwell and
Hall, on their return from the embassy to
China. (See Hall's Voyagt to Corta and
Loo-Choo.) They are represented as
havinff a mild climate and an excellent
soil, wounding in fruits and vegetables.
The voyagers who have touched have
been allowed to land only under the most
jealous precautioiis, and have never been
permitted to enter the country. In other
respects, they have been kindly treated and
BU|^lied with provisions^ for jvhich the
islanders have uniformly refused to receive
pi^. Capt Hall paints the islands as a new
Arcadia, in whicn the use of araus money
and punishinents is unknown. It is man-
ffal that little leUanca is to heidqpedoo

the accounts of tnveDers, who were igno-
rant of the language of the Loo-Chooans^
and whose intercourse with them was ev-
idently subject to all the lestssints of a most
vigilant and despotic police. In fiict, the
statements of captain Hall on several
points have been contradicted by the last
voyager who has visited these islands
(Beechey, Voyagt m the Pacific^ London,
1831), who asserts that the Loo-Chooans
have arms and money, and inflict the
most severe and cruel punishments. As for
the supplies, they appear to have been fur-
nished by authority, and not by individu
als, and the refusal to receive compensa-
tion is easily accounted for, on the ground
that the government which shows such an
aversion to strangers, is unwilling to sufiler
any trafiSc between them and its subjects.
They were for some « time subject to
Japan, but, in 1372, were conquered by
China.

Look-out ; a cape on the coast of North
Carolina, in lat 34° 34' N. : N. £. of cape
Fear, and S. W. of cape Hatteras.

Loon [colymhus); large aquatic birds^
common to both Europe and America.
They seldom visit Britain, but are met
with in the north of Europe and Asia.
In America, they are most numerous
about Hudson's bay, but are also found
fiurther south. In Pennsylvania, they are
migratory, making their ap|)earance in the
autumn. They are commonly seen in

Eairs, and procure their food, which is fish,
y diving and continuing under water for
a length of time. They are very waiy,
and are seldom killed, eluding their pur-
suers by their great dexterity m plunging
beneath the water. They are very rest-
less before a storm, always uttering loud
cries on the approach pf a tempest. They
are not eaten, the flesh being rank and
fishy. Some of the tribes in the Russian
empire tan the skin which covers the
breast of this fowl, and form dresses, &c.
of it, which are very warm, and imbibe
no moisture. The Greenlandera also
make the same use of them. The loon
measures two feet ten inches from the tip of
the bill to the end of the tail, and four feet
six inches in breadth : the bill is strong, of a
glossy black, and four inches and three
quarters long, to the corner of the mouth.
The head and half of the length of the
neck are of a deep black, with a green
gloss, and purple reflections; this is suc-
ceeded by a hand consisting of interrupted
white and black lateral stnpes, which en-
compasses the neck, and tapers to a point
on its fore part, without joining ; bek»w
this II a broad hwd of dvk gkMiy grs^

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LOON—LOPE DE VEGA-

and violet, whieh Is blended behind with
the plumfl^ of the back ; the whole of
the upper parts are of a deep black, slight-
ly dossed w^ green, and tnickly spotted
wiu white, in regular transverse or semi-
circular rows, two spots on the end of
each feather; the lower parts are pure
white, with a slight dusky line across the
vent The outside of the legs and feet is
black, the inside lead color. The le^ m
ibur inches in length ; both legs andreet
are marked with five-mded polygons ;
weight about eight to ten pounds. The
female is somewhat smaller than the male,
and differs in her colors. The young do
not attain their perfect plumage until the
second or third year. It should be men-
tioned, however, that Temminck and the
prince of Muagnano state that the two sex-
es are alike in plumage : our sportsmen who
reside on the coast where these birds are
plenty, insist, on* the contrary, that the
adults of both sexes may always be dis-
tinguished by their plumage. The female
lays two large brownish eggs, and general-
ly builds at the edge of small islands or
the margins of lakes and ponds. In swim-
ming and diving, the legs only are used,
and not the wings, as in the guillemot and
auk tribes ; and, from their ^ing situated
6r behind, and their slight deviation from
the line of the body, the bird is enabled to
propel itself through the water with great
velocity.

Loos, Daniel Frederic, a distin^ished
die-mnker, was bom at Altenburg, m Sax-
ony, in 1735. Stieler, the royal die-cutter,
took him as an apprentice, but kept him
back from jealousy. Loos, however, final-
ly went to Dresden, where he worked at
tne mint, but his merits were here also
kept secret by his employer. After many
vicissitudes, Loos was employed in the
Pruaaian service at Magdeburg, but was
unable to maintain his family, and lived
for some time in poverty, in Berlin. His
merit was at lost acKnowledged. In
1787, he became member of the academy
of !fine arts, and produced a great number
of medals. Purity of style and drawing
were not so much required in medals as
at present in Germany, but his successors
have hardly BurfAssed him in technical
skilL Loos died in 1818. His son is one
of the chief officers of the Berlin mint

Lope de Veoa (Don Lope Iklix de Vtga
€Uprfiut ; IVry, as he is often called, signi&s
THor), a celebrated dramatic poet, was
bom at Madrid, Sept 9£s 1568. While a
* child, be displayed a lively taste for poo-
try, made versea before he knew how to
wiita^ and, aa he himaelf aven^ had ocnn-

poaed aevend theatrical pieces, when
scarce^ 12 years of age. About this time,
he ran away from school with a com-
rade, for the purpose of seeing the world,
but was stopped in Astorga,and sent back,
by the authorities of the place, to Madrid.
Lope early lost his parents, but was ena-
bled, by the assistance of Avila, bishop of
Alcala, to complete his studies. He afler-
vrards found a patron in the duke of Alva,
at Madrid. Encouraged by this Meece-
nas, whose secretary he became, he com-
posed his Jhradia, a heroic pastoral in
prose and verse, of which Montenm'or
had given an exami>le in his Diana. The
Arcadia is an idyl, in five acts, in which
the shepherds, with their DukvneaSf speak
the language of Amadis, and discuas
questioAs of theology, grammar, rhetoric,
arithmeuc, geometry, music and poetry.
Inscriptions are also introduced upon the
pedestals of the statues of distinguished
men in a saloon, in which a part of the
action takes place. This work proved the
various acquisitions of the author. Con-
ceits and quibbles are frequent in this, as
in Lope's other writings. In general, he
is one of those writers who set a danger-
ous example of that fiilse wit, a taste for
which extended almost all over £u*
rope. Marino particularly introduced it
into Italy, and acknowledged, with lively
expi'essions of admiration, that Lope had
been his pattern. Ailer the publication of
his Arcadia^ Lope married. He appeared
however, to have cultivated the poetic art
with increasing zeal. A nobleman of
rank having made himself meriy at Lope's
expense, the poet revenged himself upon
this critic, and exposed him to the laughter
of the whole city. His opponent challenged
him, and was dangerously wounded in
the encounter,^ and Lope was obliged to
flee to Valencia. Aflerhis return to Madrid,
the loss of his wife rendered a readencein
that place insupportable to him. In J588,
therefore, he served in the invincible ar-
mada, the fete of which is well known.
During this expedidon he wrote La Her-
mosiura de Angelica (the Beauty of Angeli-
ca), a poem in 20 cantos, which continues
the history of this princess from the time
in which Ariosto left it By this work he
hoped to do honor to his country, in
which, as he learned in Turpin, the suc-
ceeding adventures of the heroine occur-
red. In addition to the peril of rivaliy
with Ariosto, the difficulty of success was
hiereased by the appearance of a poem
upon die same subject, by Luis Bor-
hono de 8olo^ under the tide Laa Lagry-
matd^wd^gedaiyWhKhpaaBed foronaoif

Digitized by VjOOQIC

ldpe.de veqjl

Ifaebeit poems in theSpanuh iangnage^
mad was honorably meDtioned in Don
Quixote. In 1590, Lope returned to
Madrid, and again entered the married
stot^ In 1596, he obtained one of the
poetical prizes^ ofiered on the oocaaion of
the canonization of Sl Isidore. This
prize poem he published with many other
poems, under the name of T<yirU dt Bur-
gwUos. About this time, he also com^
posed a great number of pieces for the
theatre. His literary fame increased, and
his domestic situation made this the hap-
piest period of his life. But he lost his
SOD, and soon after his wife, and had only
a daughter left. He now sought consola-*
tion from religion, and became a priest
and secretaiy of the inquisition. His de-
T(»don, however, did not interfere with his
poetical studies, and he sdll endeavored to
maintain the distinguished rank which he
had taken upon the Spanish Parnassus,
and to repel the attacks of bis foes and his
rivafa^ aiuonff whom Luis de Gongora y
Argote was the most distinguished. Lope,
who had been attacked in his satires, and
who was indignant at the corruption of
taste produced by him, allowed himself to
ridicule his obscure and affected style, and
that of his pupils, although, m his poem
laaxrd de ApoUo^ he acknowledges the
talents of Gongora. But Gongora's cor-
rupt taste infected even his opponents,
and it must be confessed that Lope's last
works are not entirely exempt ftom it
Another yet more distinguished assailant
was Ceivantes, who publicly advised him,
in a sonnet, to leave the epic poem, upon
which he was then engaged— -/entfo^em
amqidstada — unfinished. Lope parodied
this sonnet, and published his poem, the
weakest of his performances. He accom-
panied it with many remarks, which are
all found in the last edition of 1777. Cer-
vantes acknowledged his merits, howev-
er, in the following verses :

" Poeta intigntf a cuyo verso o prosa
Nhtguno U aoantaje m aun lehega."

(A distinguished poet, whom no one, in
verse or prose, surpasses or equals.) Cer-
vantes died soon after (1616), in poverty,
in the very city in which his rival lived
in splendor and luxuiy, and in the posr
session of the public adtniratiofi. How
diflferently has posterity judged of these
two poets ! For 200 years, the fame of
Cerrantes has been increasing, while
Lope is neglected in his own country.
About the time of Cervantes' death, the
enthusiasm of the Spaniards for Lope i^
proeched to idolatiy, and he himself was

Hotwiaeenoii^tDieleetit Thennnibar
of hispoetical productions is extraofdina-
r^. Scarcely a year passed in which he
^ did not print a poem, and, in general^
acarcelv a month, nay, scarcely a week, ki
which he did not produce a piece for the
theatre. A pastoral, in prose and veree,
in which he celebrates the birth of Christ,
established his supremacy in this branch ;
and many verses and hymns on sacred sub-
jects bore testimony to his zeal for the new
calling to which he had devoted hunself.
Philip IV, who greatly favored the Spanish
theatre, when he ascended the throne, in
1621, found Lope in possession of the
stage, and of an unlimited authori^ over
poets, actors, and the public. He imroe^
diately loaded him with new merits of
honor and favor. At this time Lope pub-
lished LosIHumpkos delaFi; has Fkn^
tunas de Diana, novels in prose, imitations
of those of Cervantes; drctf an epic
poem, and Philomelaj an aUegory, in
which, under the character of the night*
ingale, he seeks to revenge himself upon
certain critics, whom he represents under
that of the thrush. His celebrity in-
creased so much that, suspicious with
respect to the enthusiasm which had
been shown for him, he printed the work
SolHoquios a DioSy under the assumed
name, N. P. Gabriel de Padecopeo (an an*
affram of Lope de Vega de Carpio),which
likewise obtained great applause. He
afl^wards published a poem on the sub-
ject of Mary Stuart, viz. Omma iragica
(the Traffic Crown), and dedicated it to
pope Urban VIII, who had also com-
memorated the death of this queen, llie
pope wrote an answer to the poet with
his own hand, and conferred on him the
tide of doctor of theology ; he also sent
him the cross of the order of Malta — ^marka
of honor which, at the same time, reward*
ed his zeal for strict Catholicism, on which
account he was also made a familiar of
the inquisition. All this contributed to.
support the enthusiasm of the Spaniards
for this "wonder of literature." The
people for whom he wrote, without regard
to criticism (for he says in his stranee
poem, Arte de hazer ComediaSy that the
people pay for the comedies, and, con*
sequently, he who serves them should
eonsult their pleasure), ran afler him
whenever he made his appearance in the
street, to gaze upon this prodigy of nature
(num^nto de fuduraieza), as Cervantes call*
ed him. The directors of the theatre paid
him so liberally, that at one time he is said
to have possessed property to the amount
of more than lOQ/KM imm ; but he vcb

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LOPE D£ VEGA.

himBeif 00 genenNU and choritaMe, that
he left but mtle. The spiritual coUe^ in
Madrid, mto which he had been admitted,
chose him president {etqfdian mayory In
common converaatioD, any thing pierfect
in its kind, was called Lopean. Until
16^ he continued without interruption
to produce poems and plays. At this pe-
riod, however, he occupied himself with
religious thou^ts, and devoted himself
stricdy to monastic practices, and died
August 36 of the same year. The prince-

§r splendor of his funeral, of which the
uke of Susa, the most distinguished of
his patrons, and the executor of his wiU,
had the direction, the great number as
well as the tone of the panegyric^ which
were composed for this occaaon, the
emulation of foreign and native poets to
bewail his death, and to celebrate his
feme, presented an example altogether
unique in the history of literature. The

Splendid exequies continued for three
ays, and ceremonies in honor of the
Spanish Phoenix were performed upon
the Spanish stages with great solemnity.
The number of Lope's compoadons is
astcmishing. It is said that he printed
more than 21,300,000 lines, and that 800
of his pieces have appeared upon the
stage. In one of his last works, he af-
firmed that the printed portion of them
was less than those which were ready for
the press. The Castilian language is, in-
deea, veiy rich, the Spanish verses are
often very short, and the laws of metre
and rhythm are not rigid. We may, how-
ever, doubt the pretended number of
Lope's works, or we must admit, that, if he
began to compose when 13 years of age, he
must have written about 900 verses daily,
which, if we consider his employments,
and the interruptions to which, as a soldier,
a secretary, the father of a family, and a
priest, he must have been subject, appears
inconceivable. What we possess of his
works amounts to only about a fourth of
this quantity. This, however, is sufficient
to excite astonishment at his fertility. He
himself informs us that be had more than
a hundred times composed a piece and
brought it on the stage within 24 hours.
Perez de Montalvan asserts that Lope
composed as rapidly in poetry as in prose,
and that he made verses faster than his
amanuenns could write them. He es-
timates Lope's plays at 1800, and liis sa-
cramental pieces (Autos Bocrcmienialos) at
400. Of his vmtings, his dramatic works
are the most celebrated. The plots of
thoae that approach nearest to the charac-
ter of trageay, are usually so extensive,

that odier poets would have made, at teasC,
four pieces of them. Such, for instance, is
the exuberance found in La ISierza laiHr
mosoy wiiich obtained die distinction of be-
ing represented in the seraglio at Constanti-
nople. In fertility of dramftic invention,
and j&cility of language, both in prose and
verse. Lope stands alone. The execution
and the connexion of his pieces are often
slight and loose. He is also accused of
making too frequent and uniform a use
of dueb and disguises (which fault, howev-
er, his successors committed still more fie-
quendy),and of freedom in his delineations
of manners. Some (lord Holland, for in-
stance) have attributed to him also the in-
troduction of the character termed gnictbfo,
upon the Spanish stage. In those irregu-
lar pieces, which Lope composed for the
popular 'taste, we find such bombast of
language and thought, that we are often
tempted to conclude that he intended to
make sport of his subject and his hearers.
The merit of the elaborate parts of his
tragedies consists particuliorly in the rich
exuberance* of his figures, and, according
to the Spanish criucs, the puritv of his
language. In judging of his boldness in
treating religious affiiira, we must take into
consideration the character of the nation,
and the nature of the Spcuush stage.
Many foreign dramatic writers, we may
add, have imitated Lope, and are indebted
to him for their best pieces and touches.
Scfalegel, in his lectures on the drama
( Vorietungen fiber dramoHache Kunst)^ says
of Lope — "Without doubt, this writer,
sometimes too much extolled, sometunes
too much undervalued, appears in the moat
favorable light in his plays; the tl^a-
tre was the best school for the correction
of his three capital faults, viz. defective
connexion, prolixity, and a useless display
of learning.'' In some of his pieces, es-
pecially the historical, which were found-
ed upon old romances and traditions, a
certain rudeness of manner predominates,
which is by no means destitute of charac-
ter, and seems manifesdy to have been
chosen for the subjects. Others, which
delineate the manners of the time, display
a cultivated tone. They all contain much
humor and interesting situations, and prob-
ably there are few which, with some alter-
ations, would not be well received, even
at the present day. Their general faults
are the same— carelessness of plot and
negligent execution. They are also de-
ficient in depth, and in those fine qualities
which constimte the mysteries of the art.
A CoUeecion de ku Obras swUas assi en
Prosa como en Veno de D. Lope^ &a, iqi-

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LOPE DE VEGA— LORira SUPPER!

oeared at Madrid, 1776, seq. (31 yo]&,4to.).
This does not contain Ins phyB, however,
which were pubJiahed at an earlier date,
in 25 Yols^ 4to. Concerning his life (of
which his poem DoroHua gives, per-
haps, the moit valuable information) and
writings, consult the woiit of lord Hol-
land— -Some Account of the Life and
Writings of Lope Felix de Vega Caipio
(London, 1817, 2 vols^ 3d edition).

Lord ; of Uhcertain etymology ; a title
of honor or dignity, used in different
senses. In the feudal tiroes, lord (seigneur)
was the grantor or proprietor of the land,
who retained the dominion or ultimate
p^perty of the feud or fee, the use only
being granted to the tenant A person
who has the fee of a manor, and conse-
quently the homage of his tenants, is called
the lord of the manor. In these cases, the
l<Hd8bip or barony was connected with
the seigneurial rights of jurisdiction. The
superior lord is styled lord paramount, and
if his tenants again grant a portion of land
to other persons, they being tenants in
reference to the lord paramount, and lords
in reference to then* own tenants, are
called mesne or meanj L e. middle lords.
Lord is also a mere title of dignity, at-
tached to certain official stations, which
' are sometimes hereditary, but sometimes
only official or personal All who are
noUe bv birth or creation, that is, the peers
of England, are called lords; the five or-
ders of nobility constimte the lords tem-
poral, in contradistinction from the prelates
of the church, or lords spiritual, both of
whom sit together in the house of lords.
(See Peers,) It is sometimes only an
official tide, as lord advocate^ lord mayor,
&C. It is also applied, but only by cour-
teey, to the sons of dukes and marquises,
and to the eldest sons of earls. — In Scrip-
tore, the word Loan, when printed m
capitals, in the Old Testament, is a trans-
lation of the Hebrew Monai, which the
lews were accustomed to substitute in
reading, and even in writing, for the in-
ef&ble name Jehomk (q. v.). In the New
Testament, it is applied to Jesus Christ,
the term, in the original Greek, being Kvptos
(owner, master.)

Lords, House or. (See Parliament,
in the article Great Britmn.)

Lord's Supper; a ceremony among
Christians, by which they commemorate
the death of the founder of their religion,
and make, at the same time, a profession
of their &ith. Jesus Christ instituted the
rite when he took his last meal with his
disciples. The bread, which he broke
after the Oriental manner, was a fitting

symbol of his bo€^, which was soon to be
broken ; and the red wine (for, probably,
Christ used this kind of wine, which is
the most common in Palestine) was a sig-
nificant symbol of his blood. In all the
churches founded by the aposdes^ this
usage was introduced. In the first and
second century, this rite was celebrated in
connexion with the <V£^ (q. v.) or love-
feast* After the thira century, when the
congregations became more numerous, the
agapes ceased, and the Lord's supper was
from thence celebrated on the occaraon of
every divine service in the churches, in
such a way that all present could partake,
with the exception of catechumens (i. e.
Christians not yet baptized), and of unbe-
lievers. These were obliged to withdrew
when the celebration of the Lord's supper
conmienced, because conununion was
considered as a mysterious act, which was
to be withheld fi^om profime eyes. Chris-
tians soon becan to ascribe supernatural
power to the nte, and to take the conse-
crated bread and wine fof* more than
bread and wine, and to maintain that the
body and the blood of our Savior were
united with them. From this originated
the doctrine of transubstantiation, which
was started by Parrhasius Radbertus, in
the ninth century. Thoi^h this doctrine
was at first opposed (see JBerengarius), yet
it was soon generally received, and, in
1215, solenmly confirmed by pope Inno-
cent III, in the fourth Lateran council.
From the new doctrine sprang the adora-
tion of the host (in which God was pres-
ent, according to the new belief), as well
as the custom of refusing the cup in the
communion to the laity, because it was
supposed, that, where the body of Christ
was, his blood must be too {Concomitance),
whence the use of the wine was not
necessary for the reception of the com-
munion. This refusal was, also, pardy
owing to a desire of avoiding every
occasion whereby the blood or Christ
might be incautiously spilled, and become
profaned ; and partly to the effi^rts of the
clergy to establish a distinction in their
own favor. Even before the origin of
the doctrine of transubstantiation, the
Lord's supper had begun to be represent-
ed as a sacrifice. From this sprang the
private moss. (See Mass.) After the
notion of purgatory had become prevalent,
this doctrine was connected with the
above-mentioned conception of the com-
munion as a sacrifice, and now masses were
said chiefly for the purpose of delivering
the souls of the deceased fit)m purgatory.
As early as the eeventh century, private

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LORD'S S0PPER..

inaMeB ware oelebnted in TariouB ploces ;
after the ninth century, they were in use
every where. Thus the Lord's supper had
become, in the couise of time, something
ouite different from the design of its
rounder. This had been contended pre^
vious to the reformation, by some parties
dissatisfied with the ruling church, espe-
cially by the Hussites (seeHuasHeSy in article
Hu$s\ in the fifteenth century, to whom,
indeed, the council of ^le was obliged
to allow the use of the cup in the com-
munion. The reformers renewed the^
complaint, that the church had deviated,
in the celebration of the Lord's supper,
from the purpose of Ohrist, and the ex-
aihple of the apostolic age, and both the
German and Swiss reformers agreed in
rejecting the doctrine of transubstantia-
tion and the mass, and maintaining, that
the Lord's supper ought to be celebrated
before the whole consregation, and with
the administration of lx)th bread and
wine. In explaining the words by which
the supper was instituted, Luther and
Zuinglius differed, and their different opin-
ions on this subject formed the principal
subject of the unhappy dissension between
the Lutheran and Calvinistic churches.
Luther took the words, " This is my body,"
&C., m their literal sense, and thought
that the body and blood of Jesus Christ
were united, in a mysterious way, with
the bread and the wine, so that the com-
municant receives, with and under (cum
tt 9ub) the bread and wine, the real
body and real blood of the Redeemer.
Zuinglius, on the other side, understood
the words in a figurative sense, and sup-
posed that Jesus Christ meant to say, ** The
bread and the wine represent my body
and my blood," aiid maintained, therefore,
that the bread and wine were mere si^ns
of the body and the blood of Chnst.
From this difference of opinion arose a
violent dispute between Luther and Zuin-
glius, which, in later times, has been
continued between the Lutheran and Cal-
vinistic divines. The opinion advanced
by Calvin, bv which a spiritual pres-
ence of the body and blood of Christ
is supposed in the communion, though it
came nearer to the Lutheran doctrine
than that of Zuinglius did, vet was essen-
tially different, and, thererore, also met
with a stronff oppontion from the strict
adherents of^Lutner. Melanchthon in-
clined to the Calvinistic notion, and so
did manv other Lutheran divines, who
were called by the opposite party PhSiip-
tfto and C^ry^Cahnrntis. The formula
to/neardUtf or artiolai o£ feligious peac^

suppressed the Crypto-Calvinistt in die
greatest part of the Lutheran church, and
established the idea of Luther. In recent
times, many Lutheran divines have ia-
clined to the Calvinistic doctrine. The
Greek church has not ado^fted the doc-
trine of transubstantiation in its whole
extent ; yet her doctrine comes nearer to
this dogma than to that of the reformed
church. The Oriental Christians differ
also from the Western, in Using leavened
bread in the Lord's supper, and in admin-
istering it to children. (See Greek Churdu)
[The doctrine of the Lord's supper has
given rise to such long and bitter conten-
tion between Catholics and Protestantt^
that the following remarks, written by a
Catholic, and giving the Catholic views
on this subject, may not be uninteresting
to our readers.] The Catholic doctrine
of oommunion (says the writer) cannot be
understood witiiout a clear inaiffht into
the fundamental vievre of the Catholic
church on all sacred things. He, to
whom Christianity is not an external reve-
lation of the Deity, to whom Jesus is aot
the incarnate God, and his doctrine not
divine truth higher than all human con-
ceptions, who regards not the church as a
divine institution, and her traditions as in-
disputably true, cannot enter into the
Catholic views on the communion. It
must be particularly considered, that Cath-
olic Christianity is of a truly mystic nature.
By mysticism we mean not the capricious
imaginations of each individual, nut the
universal mystical belief of the church.
Of these mysteries the sacrament of com-
munion is the highest, and is the cendnl
point of all the institutions of the Catholic
church. In all religions, we find the idea
of a sacrifice, which man offers to the I>e-
ity, by which he acknowledges a relatioB
between himself and the Deity, and en-
deavors to represent the devout spirit of re-
li gion by an act of external worship. The
purer is this idea of a sacrifice, the purer
is the religion. It was reserved for Chris-
tianity to ^ve it its highest reality and
greatest purity. In the prophecies relat-
ing to the Messiah, it is said, that he shall
be a priest afier the order of Melchisedek
{Psdbn ex. 4) ; but this Melchisedek was
a priest of the Most High, who offered
bread and wine. ( Gen, ziv-) How then
was this prophecy fulfilled ? Malachi pre-
dicted that the sacrifices of the ancient
law 'Would be abolished, and supplied by
a pure meat-offering. (Malaehi i, 11.) The
incarnate God walked in the flesh among
mortals, teaching and working minwlea
After having peifivmed the mimde of

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LORD'S SUPPER.

nmhiplyiiig the loaves, he delnrered a part
of his mysteries (John vi, 48-^56 ; 1 Co-
rmUL xiXy 16; Luke zxiL 19, 20 ; Mark xiv,
22— 39; Jlfal^xxvL2&r-28.) ItiseasUy
perceived that this rite must have been
coeval with ftie foundation of his religion,
and that the apostles every where intro-
duced it and made known its si^ification.
But what the apostles have mtroduced
and preached we learn only by tradition.
This tradition, however, tells us that the
CHndinance of Christ was meant Hterally.
The Lord (proceeds the writer) remained
in his church : in the congregations of the
Christians, the body and the blood of the
Savior were ofi^red and tasted in the shape
of bread and wine. This was the belief
of the church from the beginniDg; and it
cannot be shown that it commenced at
any particular time, or supplanted another
doctrine. The clearest proof of this is,
that a amilar doctrine, even if it be not
the same doctrine of transubstantiation,
IS to be found in all the churches, which
long since separated from the Catho-
lic This rite i9 in remembrance of the
death and the resurrection of Jesua But
how (says the writer] can we sin against tlie
body and the blood of Jesus ? How can
we take it at all unworthily, if the whole
ceremony is a mere act of commemora-
tion ? To what purpose would be the ad-
monition, ''This do in remembrance of
me," if there was no meaning attached to it
but that of a participation in the fruits of
Jesus' death by an act of commemora-
tion ? The memory of Jesus is essentially
connected with all the benefits of his reh-
gion. Further, as soon as we admit of a
real presence of Jesus in the eucharist,
we must be ready to concede, also, that
the bread and wine cease to exist in reali-
ty, though they remain still in appearance.
That which really exists, is the sacra-
mentally (not visibly) present body and
blood of Christ. By a miracle of the
Omnipotent, a change is effected, and this
we call tr€msiJ)staniiatum. It has been
proved already, by Leibnitz, that there is
no philosophical contradiction in this, and
we find it the principle of a whole philo-
sopl^cal school, the sceptics, to dispute
the real existence of appearances. £ven
the oldest Christian fathers, not only in
sermonsy but in passages explanatory of
their doctrines, and destined for the in-
stnictioD of the catechumens, expressed
thetDsehres in such a way as to show
us that the first ChristiaDS were not
only convinced of Christ's being pres-
eot dvoagh our bdie^ but also that
the fanad or wine no kHiger existed.

Jusdn Martyr, endeavoring to give the
emperor a nodon of the religion of the
Christians, after describing the ceremo-
ny of consecration, says, "We eat this
not as conmion bread, and drink this
not as common wine ; but as Jesus Christ,
afler havLoff been made man by the word
of God, had flesh and blood, so we beheve
also, that the food consecrated by his
words, has become the flesh and blood of
the man Jesus." (Acta 1.) We know al-
so, that the Christians were accused, by
the pagans, of eatins, m their secret as-
semblies, the flesh oi an infant—a notion
which certainly took its rise from their
doctrine of the Lord's supper, of which
the former might have heard some ob-
scure accounL The Christians, in gene^
ral (continues the writer), kept this doc-
trine very secret (disciplina arcani). If
they believed that they received Christ
only through fiiith, it is not easv to see
why they made such a mystery or it But
this they did, and instructed theur catechu-
mens in tiiis doctrine but a short time be-
fore their baptism. The dogma of tran-
substantiation is as old as the communion
itselfj and was by no means first set up by
Parrhasius.Radbertus, in the ninth centu-
ry, as is commonly asserted by the Prot-
estants. There is no reason why that
real presence should be limited to the
time when the Christian receives the eu-
charist ; for Christ distinctiy says, "This is
my body," and tenders it, on that account,
to his disciples. And how could it be de-
cided at what moment this presence com-
mences, and when it ceases? The first
Christians knew nothing about this limi-
tation. They regarded the consecrated
host with feelings of adoration ; they
partook of it with the utmost awe, and
carried it with them in times of persecution,
to encourage Uiemselves by the enjoyment
of it. Origcn, a writer of the third centu-
ry, says, " You, who are allowed to par-
take in the holy mysteries, you know how
to keep the body of the Lord you receive,
with all caution and reverence (the Chris-
tians received it fonnerly with their hands),
lest any part of the hallowed gift fall to
the ground ; you believe justly that you
brmg guilt upon yourselves when, by neg-
ligence, you drop any part of it" Equally
tturong terms are to be found in Cyril's in-
structions to the new converts, as well as
in the Utiu^ of all the Oriental and West-
em churches, the testimony of which is
of the greater importance, as it is not the
testimony of a few single Bcholars, but the
public profession of entire churches. Am
ttom the fint times^ the presbyter of the

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LORD'S SUPPER.

congregation performed the consecmtiony
the peculiar view of the Catholic church,
which considers the spiritual ^ide of a
congregation aa a sacrilScing priest, is ex-
plained. The mass is nocTii ng but this
sacrifice, and, so far, as old in its essential
character as the Lord's supper, though it
first received its external additions and
form under Gregory tlie Great. The Lord's
supper is a sacrament, which, by an ex-
ternal symbol, sanctifies the internal man.
The Catholic view of communion per-
vades the whole Catholic religious and ec-
clesiastical system. This creed of the
whole Christian church, the Greek not
excepted,as it is represented here, remained
uncontroverted until the eleventh cen-
tury, when the controversy between the
Greek and the Latin churches broke out,
respecting the bread to be used in the
communion — whether it ought to be leav- •
ened or unleavened. Respecting the doc-
trine of the supper, there arose no dis-
pute, till the beginning of the thirteenth
century, when the priest Berengarius of
Tours denied the doctrine- of transub-
stantiation, but not that of the sub-
stantial presence of Christ. The whole
church was surprised at tiiis innovation.
This ^ave occasion, in the fourth Lateran
council, to a solemn proclamation of the
old creed of the church on transiibsian-
tiation. This creed continued in full au-
thority, and even Hussdid not impeach it;
nay, Uuss and his adherents were filled
with reverence towards the sacrament,
and claimed even the cup. It had become
customary in latter times, from fear of spill-
ing some part of the blood, to give only the
body to the laity, since in the body the
blood was contained (doctrine of concom-
itance )w Tlie Hussites, however, believed
that the cup was a constituent part of the
sacrament, without which the sacrament
would not be complete. The church con-
demned this opinion as a heresy, in the
council of Constance, in 1415. By the
reformation of the sixteenth century, the
whole Catholic system was attacke<l, as
the reformers, rejecting the traditions of
the church, took the Bible alone for their

Slide in matters of belief, and departed, at
e same time, from the Catholic theory
of communion. If they had lefl tlie
Catholic doctrine on communion, the
priesthood and mass would necessarily
nave remained too. By what means
could the priests of the new sect obtain
theu* consecration ? It wos therefore neces-
aary to establish a new theory of com-
munion ; or, rather, it was the natural con-
iequenee, since the new ohurch, founded

on reason, by which the scripture was to
be searched, must needs lose a sense of
the Catholic mysteries, hi the council of
Trent, session 13, are pronounced the
following canons, which jsepresent tlie
creed of the church : — 1. Ir any one de-
nies tliat there is contained in the most
holy sacrament of the altar, truly, reallv
and substantially, the body and the blood,
together with the soul and divinity of our
Lord Jesus Christ, and, consequendy, the
entire Christ, — if such a one say, that he
is contained therein only as in a symbol,
vdjiguroy vd virhde, anathema sit (let him
be cursed). 2. If any one says, that there
remains in the most holy sacrament of the
altar, the substance of the bread and wine,
together with the life and the blood of
our Lord Jesus Christ, and if he denies
that wonderful and miraculous transform-
ation of the whole substance of the bread
into the body, and the whole substance of
the wine into the blood, whilst there re-
mains only the shape {species) of the
bread and the wine, which transformation
is termed, by the Catholic church, tran*
sttbstantialion — dnaiheina sit, 3. If there
be any one who denies that there is con-
tained in the venerable sacrament of tho
altar, under both sorts, and afler division
has been performed under the single parts
of both sorts, the whole Christ — anathema .
sit. 4. If any one says, that, afler conse-
cration has been performed, the body and
the blood of Christ is not in the mmicu-
lous sacrament of the altar, but that this
is only during the tasting, neither before
nor aJlenoardSf and that there is not in
the consecrated host or the particles, pre- ^
served or remaining afler tiie celebration
of the Lord's supper, die true body of
the Lord — anathema sit, 5, If any ono
says, either that remission of sins is the
prhicipal effect of the sacrament of the
altar, or that no other results spring from
it— anathema sit, 6. If any one says, that
the only-begotten Son of God is not to be
adored by external worship, in the holy
sacrament of the altar, and to be revered
with particular solenmity, nor to be sol-
emnly carried about in processions, after
the praiseworthy and universal usage of
the church, nor to be presented publicly
to the people, and that those who adore
him are idolaters— «»krf/*emai sit, 7. If
any one says, it is not permitted to keep
the holy eucharist hi the pix, but that it
must be distributed immediately afler the
consecration to the by-standera, or that k
is not permitted to bear it reverentiaUy to
the sick— onottemowt. 8. If any one says,
that the Christ offerod in the euofaatist im

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LORira SUPPEB.-LORRAINE.

Msled only 8piritna]]y, and ndt aacrament-
aify and leallV— ^moAema siL 9. If any one
d^aieathatau Cbriadan believers of either
aeZyas soon aa they are arrived at years of
djBCietlon, are boudid, after the command
of the holy Oltholic church, to conunwii-
eate, at least, at Blaster every year— emaf^
ma siL 10. If any one says, that it is not per-
mitted to the omciatmg priest to admmis-
ter the sacrament to hiraself^-onafft^mant
11. If any one says, that fiiith alone is a
sufficient preparation for the enjoyment
of the holy sacrament — anaihema stt. The
Catholics have still rheproieru fitimat, as
a pledge that the Lord remains with their
church. (See Corpus ChrittL)
Lorenzo ds Medici. (See MedicL)
LoRETTo ; a smaQ town in the States
of the Church, about three miles from the
sea, in the Marc of Ancona, with a bishop,
who is also bishop of Recanati, and 5000
inhabitants, who are principally supported
by the resort of pilgrims. Pilgrimages are
made to the ctua tonto— the holy house in
the cathedra] of Loretto, which is supposed
to have been the house of the vir^n Mary,
and which was carried by the angels (1291 )
from Galilee to Dalmatia, and thence, in
1294, to Italy, near Recanati, and, finally
(]^295), to the spot where it now remains.
This holy house, which is in the centre
of the church, is covered, externally, with
marble, and is built of ebony and brick.
It is 30 feet long, 15 wide, and 18 feet
hi^ and richly ornamented. It has also
been imitated at other places (for instance,
at Prague). Loretto formerly contained
great treasures, collected from the pil-
grims. The income of this house once
amounted txy. 30,000 scudij besides the
presents received annually. The pilgrims
were estimated at 100,000 yearly. Amongst
other curiosities, a window is shown in
the holv house, through which the angel
Gabriel appeared to Mary, when he an-
nounced the birth of the Savior. Ra-
phael's painting of the virgin throwing a
veil over the infant is beautiful. The
treasures were, in part, expended in pay-
ing the contributions imposed by the
French (1796) ; the rest was taken posses-
sion of by them. They carried the image
of the virgin to Paris, but it was restored
withgreat pomp, December 9, 1802.

L'uRiENT ; a fortified and regularly buOt
seaport of France, department of the
* Moffoihan, on the bav of Port Louis, at
the influx of the small river Scorf. The
harbor is large and secure, and of easy
aooeas. It h^ still some trade^ particular-
ly with the French colonies, and is a
niafe of importance, oa account ci its

magazines fbr the use of the royal navr*
The principal manufiu;ture is of san.
Population, 17,115 ; 340 miles W. by 8.
Paris; lat 4r>4y N. ; lon.6°Sy W.
LoRME, Marion de. (See Dehrmt,)
Lorraine, Claude. (See CZoude Lor^
raine.)

Lorraine {LoOuningia ; in German,
Lothinren), so called from Lothaire II, to
whom ttiis part of the country fell in the
division of the empire between him and
his brothers, Louis II and Charles (854),
had previously belonged to the kingdom
of Austrasia. It was divided into Ix>wer
and Upper^ Lorraine ; the former in-
cluding all the country between the Rhine,
the Meuse and die Scheldt, to the sea ;
the latter the countries between the Rhine
and the Moselle, to the Meuse. Lorraine,
at a later period, was bounded by Alsace,
Franche-Comt^, Champa^e, Luxemburg,
the present Prussian province of the Low-
er Rhine, and the Bavarian circle of the
Rhine, containing 10,150 square miles,
and at present forming the French depart-
menCB of the Meuse, the Vosges, the Mo-
selle and the Meurthe, with a population
of 1,500,000 inhabitants. Its forests and
mountains, among which the principal ia
the Vosges, are adapted for the raising of
cattle, and contain much game ; they also
3rie1d copper, salt, iron, tin, and some sil-
ver. SaJt springs and lakes, abounding
with fish, are alro to be found. The son
is, for the most part, poor, and not adapt-
ed for tillage. The vine is cultivated to
a considerable extent The French and
German languages are spoken. The peo-
ple are of Carman origin. Lorraine was
for centuries a subject of dispute between
France and Germany. It was, for a long
time, a fief of the German empire. On
the death of Charles the Bold, duke of
Lorraine, in 1431, without male heira,
the country was inherited by his daughter
Isabella. The two grandsons of her son-
in-law Frederic — Antony and Claude-
founded, in 1508, the principal and col-
lateral Lorraine lines, tne latter of which
Spread in France (the dukes De Guise,
'Aumale, D'Elboeu^ D'Hareourt, belong-
ed to it). From that time forward (1540),
France took a decided part in all diisputes
reladnff to Lorraine. Charles of Lorraine
was driven out, during the 30 years' war,
on accoimt of his connexion with Austria.
He was restored in 1659, under severe
conditions, and, in 166S, he consented
diat Lorraine should ffo to France on
his death, the house of Lorraine being
recognised as princes of the blood. He
was, however, again deposed^ and died

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LORBAINE— LOT.

in the AoBtiuui eervice. His brother's
mndson Leopold was recogiused as
duke of LoRBiae by the peace of Rye*
wick (1697). France finally succeeded in
her intentions, when StanisiauSy &ther-in-
Isw of Louis XV, and the dethroned king
of Poland, by the peace of Vienna (No-
vember 8, 1738), received the duchies of
Lorraine and Bar (with the exception of
the county of Falkonstein), which, after
his death (1766), were united with- Vrance.
By the second peace of Paris (1815), a
small part, with the fortress Saarlouis, was
ceded to Gennany, and now belongs to
the Prussian province of the I^wer
Rhine. Besides the principal town, Nan-
cy (q. v.), Lun^ville (q. v.) has been di»-
tinguished by the peace of 1801. Charles
Eugene, duke of Lorraine-EIboeuf^ bom
September 25, 1751, at the c6mmence-
ment of the French revolution, command-
ed the regiment roved MUmand^ under the
tide of prince Lamoesc,and afterwards en-
tered tne Austrian service, and died at
Vienna, November 21, 1825. He was the
last of the younger line. The elder line
now rules in Austria, Tuscany and Mode-
na. (See Etienne's ResunU de VHtstoire de
Lorraine (Paris, 1825). See also Hapsburg.)

LoRT. This name has been given to
some of the parrot tribe, from tlieir fre-
quendy repeating t^e word. They have,
nowever, no distinct characters of sufii-
cient importance to separate them from
the great eeuus psittaeus. They are very
active and gay, even in captivity. They
are found, for tlie most part, in the Mo-
luccas, and are held in great estimation in
some parts of the East. The most priz-
ed is tne scarlet loiy, which was for a long
time unknown in Europe, as the Dutch
were at first wholly unsuccessful in trans-
porting it thither ; the binls generally died
on the voyage. They are now, however,
brought across the ocean without much
difiiculty, and are marked by their tender
ness and attachment to their masters.
The Javanese appear to have a great pre-
dilection for them, and raise them in
great numbers. But the most valuable of
3iese birds is the yellow-coUared, which is
of a deep red color, with a circle of yel-
low around its neck. It is principally
found in New Guinea. It is very docile
and fiimiliar, and has great aptness in
lefurning to speak ; this, added to its beau-
and its extreme delicacy, as well as

le difiicidty of rearing it, renden it very
uigfaly esteemed. A nngle bird has been
sold in London as high as 20 guineas.

Lot ; a river of France, which rises in
the department of Loz^ and joins the

Ganmne, near Aiguilkm; length, 150
miles. It gives name to a department.

(&ee D^parSnenL)

Lot ; accordinff to the Hebrew histoij^
a nephew of ADraham, who, to avoid
dissensions between his j^llowers and
those of Abraham, went east into the
plain of Jordan, towards Sodom, while his
uncle dwelt in Canaan. Having been
taken captive by some marauding chiefs,
Lot was delivered by Abraham fit>m
their hands. Having received two angela
into his house in Sodom, an attack was
made upon it by night, by the inhabitants,
who were struck blind, and the impend-
ing destruction of the city was announced
to Lot. He escaped from the devoted
spot, with his family ; but his wife, looking
back at the scene of devastation, " became
a pillar of salt," which Josephus, and Ben-
jamin of Tudela, declare existed in their
times, and, according to some late travel-
lers, was to be seen not long ago. The
text is, by some, understood merely to sig-
nify, that she was rendered a statue, that
is, motionless, by being incrusted with
salt Lot afterwards became the father of
Moah and Ammon, by his two daughters.

Lot. Man often finds it extremely
difficult to choose between two measures,
things, persons, &c. In such cases, he
often allows himself to be determined by
some outward impulse. This is, in part,
the reason why men appeal to lot. The
predominant motive, however, in very
mtiny cases, is a superstitious belief of the
direct interference of the Divinity in de-
termining the result Hence we find the
lot most frequendy resorted to in ages and
nations littie advanced in civilization, and
less guided by reason tiian by belief in
supernatural influences; and hence, too,
the religious ceremonies with which the
appeal to lot is often accompanied in such
a state of society. (See iHtnnaHon,) It
would be endless to enumerate the difler-
ent modes of determination by lot, and the
vtirious cases in which men have resorted
to this mode of resolving doubts. The
Hebrews used to draw lots before under •
taking any important enterprise ; also in
criminal trials, to determine the question
of guilt or innocence ; and at the elec-
tion of officers. Thus the apostle Mat-
thew was chosen by lot For this pur-
pose, dice or small staves were generally
taken. The holy lot wua the Urim and
Thummim, The Greeks made use of dice,
with signs^ lettera or words inscribed.
These were drawn out of a vessel, and in-
terpreted by priests, or the dice weie
thrown as in games. Such dice were found

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LOT--LOTTE&T.

m nuaiy tenplefi, and one at Pimieite WM
fiunous <m that account. The noithem
natniia — ^&ii8aiain,GeniMiiis^wede8y&c«—
aO had thw ways of piyinff into the fu-
ture by lot. The Moravian Brethren have
le-inirodnced ike appeal to lot ; they use
it in the caae of marriageB and appoint-
mentB, in their community, though it must
be observed that they ^re not determined
aoleiy by it

Lot has received, in America, the pe-
culiar meaning of a portion of land, as a
Junue-UiL In the first settlement of the
country, a certain portion or share of land
was aUoUed to each inhabitant of a town ;
this was called his lot. Hence, in a more
general sense, the same word was applied
to any piece of land. (See Jhneritcansm.)

Lot-and-Garonue ; a department of
France. {See,DeparimenL)

Loth; a German weight, the half of an
ounce, or the 3l2d part of a pound avoii^
dupois. The lead used by navigators and
mechanics is also called LoUi in German.

LoTiCHius, Peter (called Seamdus^ to
diatingnish him finom his uncle), bom at
^aalniiinster, in Hanau, 1528, studied phi-
losophy, the ancient languages, rhetoric
' and poetry under Melismis, Camenuius
and Melanchthon ; served in the fi>rce8 of
The Smalcaldic league ; travelled in France
and Italy, as the tutor to some rich young
men ; during this time, studied medicine
at the most j&mous universities of both
roimtries, and afterwards received a doc-
torate at Padua* He died very young,
while professor of medicine at Heid^
beig, I06O, as it is said, in consequence of
a love potion, which was given him in
ISologna. His Latin poetiy, particularly
his elegies, give him a place among the
fifst modem Latin poets. There are edi-
tions of his PoematOy by P. Burmann
(Amsterdam, 1754, 3 vol8.,4to,), and by
Kretschmar (Dresden, 1773].

Lotion, in medicine ana pharmacy, is
a wash for beautifying the skin, by clears
ing it of the defbrmi&es occasioned by a
iiretematural secretion. Almost all the
lotions advertised for sale, contain much
deleterious matter, and therefore ought
never to be had recourse to.

Lottery (from lot); a scheme for the
distribution of prizes by chance. Lotte-
ries, like every other species of gambling,
«o doubt have a pernicious influence upon
«he character of those concerned in them.
Though this influence is not so direct, and
the immediate consequences are not so
disastrous, as those of some other species
of ffambling, which call into exercise the
viofont passions, and stake the gambler's

VOL. VIII. %

whole foitune upon a aa^ chance or
exertion of 8kilV-«till, as this kind can be
carried on secredy, and the temptations are
thrown in the way of both sexes, all ages,
and aU descriptiona of persons, it ^r^s
more widely m a community, and may
thus silentiy infect the sober, economical
and industrious habits of a people more
extensively and deeply, than those species
of gamblhag which are attended widi
greater turbulence, and a train of other
vices. Lotteries are of diiSferent kinds : J.
Numerical lottery, or lotto (lotto di Gt-
nova) ,' invented by the Genoese. At the
elecnons of the counsellors, the names of
the candidates were cast into a vase, and
then into a wbeel-of-fortune, when wagers
were laid upon the eveiit of the elections ;
the state finally undertook the superin-
tendence of the bank. It is saia that
Benedetto Gentile, a counsellor, first in-
troduced this lotto in 1620 ; and, because
the name GeiUile, by chance, had never
been drawn, the popular belief prevailed,
that the devil had carried him on, to^tlier
with his name, to punish him for this un-
lucky invention. Numbers were afler-
virards substituted instead of the names of
eligible noblemen, and ^nce the lotto as>
sumed its present form. The numbers
from 1 to 90 are used ; firom these, on the
day of drawing^ five numbers are always
drawn. Out of die 90 numbers, each ad-
venturer chooses for himself such and as
many numbers as he likes, and specifies
with what sum and upon what kind of
chance he will bade each selected num-
ber ; whereupon he receives a printed
ticket In this lottery, there are four kinds
of chances: 1. An utrado^ so calKfi,
which requires only one number among
the ^Ye that are drawn, and in which the
successful adventurers received 14 times
the stake. By this the lotto gains 16 per
cent, because there are 17 bmnks to one
prize. 2. The wager, in which a man
lays a wager, as it were, with the lotto,
that one of the selected numbers will
have the first, second, third, fourth or fifth
place in the order of drawing. Should
this event happen in the drawing, the bet-
tor obtains 67 times the sum deposited.
By this the lotto gains about 25 per cent
9.' The third is an axnhof in whicn, of the
numbers drawn, there are two winch the
adventurer has pitched upon. He re-
ceives from the lotto 240 times the stake.
In this case, the lotto gains 37 per cent,
there bein^ 399 blanks to one prize. 4.
The last' is a ttmoy by which the lotto
puns 54 per cent, there being 11,347
blanks to one prise. It requires the ad^

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LOTTEEY-

vonturar to piteh upon three of the five
nuinben drawn, in which case he wine
4800 times the amount of the atake. The
qwdarnu and quinUrnti are a later in-
vention, end seldom qiplied to practice,
because the lotto therep^r gains 88 per
cent and^more. The lotto was eveiv
where patronized by the multitude, witn
an interest increasing almost to madness.
Wise governments soon saw into the de-
structive tendency of the lotto, and put an
end to it, or prohibited adventuring in it
under a severe penalty. Though the profit
of the lotto banks was evident, yet fortune,
by means ofUmes and ^umteniM, brought
many of them to ruin, or, at least, to its
very verge, and hence, if numbers were
backed too frequently, the conductors
took the precaution to secure themselves,
by dechuing before the drawing, that
such numbers were full, and they could
receive no further stake upon them.
Frauds, also, were practised, by means of
violent riding and carrier-pigeons, on
those lottos, the under offices of which,
being placed at a distance, were accus-
tom^ to sell tickets, afler the drawing in
the principal offices had commenced. II.
The proper lotteiy, called also dasa loUe-
ry, when divided into classes. Its origin
is more ancient than that of the lotto. It
has been referred to the Roman Congix-
ri(u It is more probable that it originated
from the transfer of merchandise by lot,
of which method the Italian merchants
made use even in the middle ages, and of
which we also find traces in Germany ;
for as early as 1521, the council at Osna-
burg is said to have established lotteries
for merchandise. So also in France, un-
der Francis I, enmilar lotteries for mer-
chandise were permitted to the merchants,
under the inspection of eovenunent, in
consideration of certain duties. A money
lottery was established at Florence, in
1590. f n 1571, there appeare to have
been a public officer in Venice for the
inspection of the lottery. From Italy,
lotteries passed into France, under the
name of wmqiu (from the Italian hiancOj
because most of the tickets were blanks,
mere white paper, carta bianca). In 1582
and 1588, Louis de Qonzaga esttiblished
such a Hangup in Paris, for providing poor

5 iris of bis estates with dowries ; and, in
656, Lawrence Tonti {Erom whom the
Tontines derive their name) sought to es-
tablish a large Uan^ ''ESP^ which v^ras
first accomplished m idoO. Since this
time, there have been in France only lot-
teries rouaUs, the income of which is
conmionly applied to public bmldings.

This iniouitotis traffic has been revived of
late, in France, on a much larger and
more destructive scale than it has attained
in any other countiy. In 1810-Hmd we
have no reason to believe any decrease
has since taken place—lotteries were
drawn twice a week at Paris, and so often
at Bordeaux, Brussels, Lyons and Stras-
burg, as to affi>rd one every other day.
13,^,000 fi-oncs were yearly produced to
government by this public gambling ; and
It has been estimated, that at Paris, the re-
sult has been more than 100 suicides an-
nually. In England, the first lottery oc-
cura in 1567—1568, a printed plan of
which, as distributed, belongs to the an-
tiquarian society in London. In 1612, a
lottery was granted in behalf of the Vir-
ginia company, and, in 1680, one also in
behalf of the undertaker of an aqueduct
to furnish London with water. In 1709,
the rage for private, and, in many in-
stances, most fraudulent lotteries, was at its
height in England, and sbop-keepers, of
all descriptions, disposed of their goods in
this way, the price of tickets being as low
as half a crown, a shilling, or even six-
pence. Towards the close of the year,
an existing act of parliament vras put in
force for tiieir suppression, and another to
the same purpose was passed in the 10th
of queen Aime. The first parHiamentary
lottery was instituted in 1709, ajod, from
that time tiU 1824, no session passed with-
out a lottery bill. In October, ^826, the
last English lotteiy was dravm. They
are now abolished in England. As early
as 1549, a lottery was drawn in Amster-
dam, to procure money for the erection of
the tower of a church, and, in 1595, one
at Delft In 1653, one was established at
Hamburg, according to the Dutch method,
and, in 16Q9, the firat class lottery, at Nu-
r^mber^, and, in 1740, the first one was
drawn m Berlin. Most of the late Ger-
man lotteries are drawn in classes, in or-
der to fiicilitate the sale of tickets. The
great lotteiy of Hamburg goes upon the
plan of one drawing. Latterly, lotteries
for merchiandise of^all kinds, under the
inspection of government, have been fre-
quent in Germany. The managere of the
principal lotteries sell only whole tickets.
Brokers, however, divide them into
halves, quarters, eighths, and even nx-
teenths, in order to facilitate their sale. In
some places, they even let out tickets and
parts of tickets, upon a particular number
of dravrings ; in which case, they are not
obliged to pay the prize which may fall to
the ticket, umeas it be drawn within the
stipulated number of drawings. If the

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LOTTERY— LOTUa

p ri ndpal pnzes remain for a Ibn^ time in
the lottery, so that the probabihty of be-
ing able to obtain them mcreases at each
sacceasive drawing, then a great profit ia
made in buying and selling tickets, and
there are cases in which, in the last draw-
ings, 10, and even 20 times the original
price of the ticket has been demanded.
Vefy lately, in the Austrian monarchy, in
the kingdom of Bavaria, and in the duchy
of Mecklenburg, estate lotteries have been
got up, and manufactories, the estates of
noblemen, and even whole lordships, have
been disposed of by lottery, under public
sanction, and, ordinarily, under the securi-
ty of important mercantile houses, which
undertook the disposal of the property, in
Older to settle the debts of the owners. A
money lonery has ordinarily been com-
bued vnth them. Latterly, lotteries have
been combined with state loans. When
the credit of the state is low, or when the
rote of interest is high, efforts have been
made to induce capitalists to put their
money into the hands of the state, by
means of a letter}', which gives them the
expectation of a premium above the cus-
tomary interest of the country. For ex-
ample : If a government is uncertain of
obtaining, or cannot obtain, money at 7
per cenL, it may, perhaps, effect ita object
by ofiering 4 per cent, for a loan, and di-
viding the remaining 3 per cent, among
the lenders by means of a lottery ; for
the hope of winning the great prizes in
tlie lotteiy, in addition to the certainty of
disposing of their capital at 4 per cent,
has a stronger influence on many men
than the offer of 7 per cent, interest. In
tbup w^ay, loans have been raised in Aus-
tria, Denmark, Baden and other states, and
also in Prussia, in 1821. By this means,
in Pnissia, stocks to the amount of
«30,000,000 were sold at their full nominal
value, which, in the market, were current
only at 70 per cent In most, if not all of
tlje U. Stated, lotteries, not specially au-
thorized by the legislatures of the states, are
prohibited, and the persons concerned in
establishing them are subjected to a heavy
penalty. This is the case, at least, in
Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Mas-
sachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island,
New York, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Ma-
ryhmd, Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee,
Georgia, Alabama, Ohio, Mississippi, and
probi3)ly in most if not all the other
StalefL The nenalty is various : in Ken-
tucky, it is a fine of $2000 ; in Tennessee,
double the sum contained in the scheme.
In Alabama, each person concerned is lia-
ble to a fine of tlOOO. In Louisiana, »

man who seDs tickeli in a lotteiy not au-
thorized by the legislature of that state,
must pay $5000 for the license so to do»
and ir he sella tickets in several such lot
teries at the same tame, this amount must
be paid for the license in each case. If
he sells without a license, he is liable to a
fine of $2000 for each ticket In many
of the states, the sale of tickets in lotteries
established by law in other states is penaL
In Massachusetts, any person concerned
in the sale of tickets in a lottery not au-
thorized by the commonwealth of that
state, is liable to a fine of fit)m $50 to
5000. In some of the states, lotteries
have been very numerous. This is the
case with several of the Southern States —
Virginia, Maryland, and particularly Ten-
nessee. They have also been numerous
in New YoA. The object for which
they have been granted has been generally
the assistance of literary or benevolent in-
stitutions—colleges, academies, hospitals,
asvlums, or of public works— as roads,
bridges, the improvement of the naviga-
tion of rivers, fltc. Their pernicious ef-
fects have induced the legislatures of some
of the U. States to decline granting them
in any case.

Lotus. This name has been applied
verv vaguely to various species of plants,
which have been celebrated in mythology
and fabulous tradidon. In the ancient
Hindoo and Egyptian mythological rep-
resentations of nature, the lotus (ndum-
bium specionaiij Lin.), an aquatic plant,
was the emblem of the great generative
and conceptive powers of the world. Sev-
eral varieties are found in India under the
names of padmoy tamara and camahL
When Vishnu, says the Hindoo fable, was
about to create the world, the god, swim-
ming in the ocean of milk, produced the
lotus from his naveL It unfolded its
flower, and displayed Brama, the first re-
sult of the creative energy. As a^ aquatic
plant, the lotus was the attribute of Glanga,
the goddess of the Ganges. In E^pt, it
was consecrated to Isis and Osins, and
was an emblem of the creation of the ^
world from water. It was also the sym*
bol of the rise of the Nile and the return
of the sun. It is found in bass-reliefs and
paintings on the Egyptian temples, in all
representations of sacrifices, rehgious cei^
emonies, &c., and in tombs and whatever
is connected vrith death or another life.
With both of these nations, it was regarded
with religious veneration, and the precept
of Pythagoraa to abstain firom beans, has
been supposed to refer to the firuit of the
lotu9«olaut« Ther^avuyitfMttiiaihnJ^

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LOTUfr-^OUDON.

the fiuit of which is a souJl ftrinaoeouB
hurjy of a delidoiu taate, which is used
by the natives of Affica to mak&a sweet
cake. This shrab is found on the northern
oeast of Afiica, and is probablythe food
of the ktoi^Mgi of antiquity. The fiibles
of the ancients concerning them are well
known. Tljey were represented as a
mild, hospitable race of men, in northern
Afiica, wno lived on the lotus berry (hence
their name A«ro{ and ^y^v, to eat), which
had the power of making strangers who
ate it, forget their native country.

Loudon, or Laudoit, Grideon Ernest,
baron o( one of the most celebrated gen-
erals of Austria in the eighteenth century,
was bom at Tootzen, in Livonia, in 1716,
a descendant of an old Scottish family, a
branch of which had emigrated thither in
the fourteenth centuij. In 1731, he en-
tered the Rusman service, and rose to the
rank of lieutenant, under Mtinnich, in the
campaign against the Turks. In 1739, he
was discharged, in' consequence of the
peace, and, mtending to enter the Aus-
trian service, went by the way of Berlin,
where, by the advice of some of his for-
mer comrades, he attempted to obtain ad-
miaraon into the Prusnan service. Ailer
being kept in suspense a long time, he
became so poor, that he was obliged to
support himself by copying. When the
king finally aUowed him to be presented,
he turned fix>m him, with the words La
phynognomie de cd homme ne me revient
pas, Loudon then proceeded to Vienna,
and, in 1742, was made captain in the
corps of Pandoors, under the partisan
chief Trenk. In the battie of Saveme,
he was wounded and taken prisoner, but
was exchanged, and served against Fred-
eric the Great, in the second Silesian war.
Trenk imputed to Loudon the outrages
and cruelties which he had himself com-
mitted, but the latter defended himself
from th# charge, and Trenk was sentenced
to imprisonment in the fortress of Spiel-
berg. After the peace, Loudon again lost
his employment, and lived in great pov-
erty. He was at length appointed major
in a regiment stationed on the Turkish
frontier, where he married, and embraced
the Catholic reliipon. Five years after-
wards, the seven years' war broke out, and
Loudon's name was arbitrarily struck
firom the list of officers destined for ser-
vice. This was done by his general, who
commanded in Croatia, a man who hated
talent ; upon which he went to Vienna
to complain, but fbund the* authorities
prejudiced against him, and vras about to
be sent badt to the finontien^ when a

fiiend succeeded in getting himappoiiited
lieutenant-colonel of a corps of light-
infintry. Loudon soon distinguided
himself! and was appointed, under the
prince of Hildburghausen, commander of
the imperial forces which were united with
the French under Soubise. Thus Loudoa
was obliged to Witness the surprise of Gotha
by the F^ssian general Seidlitz, and the
defeat at Rossbach. At this time, Fred-
eric the Great sent him a flattering letter,
with the commission of general, which hia
hussars bad taken from an Austrian courier.
In 1758, Loudon wbb made lieutenant
field-marshal. He decided the victory of
Cuneradorf (q. v.J in 1759, which threat-
ened the destruction of the Prusnan mon-
archy, and was appointed genend of artil-
lery, with the command of 30,000 men.
In 1760, he ffained the battle of Landshut,
and covered the retreat of the army of
Daun, after the battie of Liegnitz, in so
masterly a manner, that Frederic exclaim-
ed — " We must learn how to retreat from
Loudon ; he leaves tiie field like a con-
queror." In 1761, without any previous
investment, he took Schweidnitz, which
was well provisioned and strongly fortified,
by assault — an achievement for which
he was on the point of being called to
account before the council of war at
Vienna. At the breaking out of the Ba-
varian war of succession, he was ap-
pointed commandef-iu-chief and field-
marshal. Afler the conclusion of peace,
he studied diligently during nine years.
When the war with Turkey broke out,
Joseph II thought, at first, that he could
conduct the campaign without the assist-
ance of Loudon, but soon found himself
obtiged to resort to the aged general, and
victoiy returned to the Austrian banners.
For the conquest of Belgrade, Loudon re-
ceived the star of the order of Maria There-
sa, which was composed of brilliants, and
kept in the treasury of the imperial femily,
and which properly belonged only to the
emperor as grand-master. After Loudon'iB
death, the emperor Leopold gave his wid-
ow 50,000 florins for it Loudon also re-
ceived the unlimited command, and the
tide of genendisgimoj which bad not been
conferred on any one since Eueene. He
died July 14, 1790, at his head-ouartera,
at New Titschein, Moravia. Loucion con-
tinued to study, even in advanced age,
and his military boldness seemed rather
to increase with his years. In his private
life, he vras moderate, and extremely mod-
est. The duke of Aremberg, in reply to
the question of the empress, at a court
party, Where le Loudon? aoBwered— Ls

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LOUDON— LOUIS XL

wUh eomme iofujcvn derriere la pority tout
lonleur dPwooir tant de mhite,

Louis DC (St), king of France, eld-
est son of Louis VIII and Blanche of
Cosdle, bom 1215, and baptized at Poissy
(for which reason be sometimes wrot«
himself Z«ou» qfPais8y\ came into pos-
seaaon of the government in 1226, and
remained under the guardianship of his
mother, who was at the same time regent
of France. This is the first instance of
the guardianship and regency being united
in one person. The queen had, with the
assistance of the pope^ brought into sub-
jection tlie independent barons, who, al-
ways at war with each other, disturbed the
trancjuillity of the kingdom. Louis suc-
cessmlly pursued the enterprise of his
mother, summoned to his council the
most able and virtuous men, put an end
to the abuse of the ecclesiastical jurisdic-
tion, composed the distm'bances in Britta-
ny, preserved a wise neutrality in the
quarrels of Gregory IX and Frederic II,
and was always intent upon promoting
the happiness of his subjects. The wise
management of his states enabled him to
levy a powerful army against Henry III
of England, with whom the great men
of the kingdom had united themselves.
Louis had tlie good fortune, in 1241, to
defeat his adversary twice in the couise
of six days, and to force him to a disad-
vantageous peace. In tlie year 1244,
when sick of a dangerous disorder, he
made a vow to undertake a crusade to
Palestine ; and neither his mother nor wife
was able, four years after, to prevent him
from fulfilling this vow. He embarked
with his wife, his brothers and the French
chivalry, landed at Damietta, and, 'n\ 1249,
conquered this city. He afterwards twice
defeated the sultan of Egypt, to whom
Palestine was subject. He himself per-
formed prodigies of valor, particularly in
the battle of Massura (1250). But famine
and contagious disorders soon compelled
him to retreat ; his army was almost en-
tirely destroyed by the Saracens, and hun-
self and his followers carried into captiv-
ity. The sultan demanded for the ran-
som of the king and his lords the restora-
don of Damietta, and 1,000,000 gold By-
> zantines. But Louis answered — ^ A king
of France cannot allow himself to be bar-
tered for gold." He offered, however, to
restore Damietta, as the ransom of his
own person, and to pay the sum demand-
ed for his followers. The sultan was so
well pleased with this answer, that he
contented himself with 800,000 Byzan-
(jnefl (about 100,000 marks of eilver j^ oiul

concluded a trace of 10 yean: ffai Na-
poleon's MimoinSf AToies et Mdangt^
(vol. 1), is foimd a comparison between
the campaign of Bonaparte in Egypt and
that of St Louis.) It was not till the year
1254, that Louis returned to France, and,
in the interval, queen Blanche, who had
ruled the kingdom in an exemplary man-
ner, had died. Louis again turned his at-
tention to the administration of the laws,
which, until this time, had been left en-
tirely to the caprice of the barons. Th&
subjects could now appeal from the de-
cision of their lords to four royal tribunals,
and learned menwere^introduced into the
parliaments, whose membera had till now
been composed of barons frenquently so
Ignorant as to be unable to write. Louis
likewise diminished the taxes, which had
exhausted the wealth of the subjects. In
12G9, he drew up a pragmatic sanction,
which secured their rights to the chief or
cathedral churches. He, nevertheless,,
repressed, when occasion required, the
arrogant pretensions of the clergy The
high character which Louis IX bore
among his contemporaries may be seen
from this circumstance, that Henry HI
and his nobles, in 1268, selected him for
the arbiter of their disputes. After he had
united to his dominions several French
provinces which had hitherto been under
the dominion of f^gland, he determined,,
in 1270, to undertake another crusade.
He sailed to Africa, besieged Tunis, and
took its citadel. But a contagious disor^
der broke out, to which he himself (Auy.
24, 1270), together with &Jg^at part of his
army, foil a sacrifice. "Hie instructions
which he left in writing; for his son, show
the noble spirit which inspired this king ;
a snirit, which, if it had not been infected
with the religious bigotry of the times,,
would have rendered his administration
the greatest of blesangs. In 1297, he
was canonized by Bonirace Vllr. Louis
XIII afterwards obtained fit)m the pope
that the festival of Saint Louis should be
celebrated in all the churches. — See Ar-
thur Beugnot's Essay upon the fnsHtutions^
" SairU Louis (Paris, 1821), and count
jffur's Life of Louis IX (Paris, 1824L
Louis XI, king of France ; one of those
personages who live at a period whea
oM principles are giving way to new, and
whose Ufo, therefore, becomes an epochs
But Louis XI is a subject of ^reat inter^
est, not onhf as a representative of hin
age, but in his ibdividual charaeter. K
penon more ready for crime, if eondueive
to his ends, or a sreater dtevotee, not for
the purgow of dbceiyiBK otbfiss ^^ ^

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LOUIS XL

1°

quiet himself is not to be found among
mooarchs. Ch&teaubriand^s Etudes Hia-
toriques contains the opinionB of many of
the first writeiiB of France, respecting this
-singular character. The following pas-
mip is from that work : Imuis Xl vint
fmrt PeMcd de la monarckie absolue star It
cadwore pdlpUant de lafiodaLiU, Ce prince
tout d partf pUuci entre h moyen dge qui
mouraU et les terns miodepfies md naisacnent,
tenati d^une mcdn la vieiUe Iwerti noble svr
Viduifaud, de VautrejetaU h Vtau dans un
aac lajeune UjberU bouiwnse; et pourtant
eeUe-a PainutUj paree qSen immokml Vans-
tocraHe, il JIattaii l& passion dhnacraHquey
rigaUti, The life of such a sovereign
can hardly be treated satisfactorily, with-
in the limits to which we are confined,
because it is not particular events, but tbe
policy of hiis government, and the charac-
ter of his measures, which render him
remarkable. A full view of his life would
be a history of France during the fifteenth
century ; we can give onlv the outlines.
Louis XI was the son of*^ Charles VII,
and was bom at Bouiges, July 3, 1423.
He was educated in a simple manner, un-
der the eyes of his mother, Mary of .An-
ion, one of the most virtuous women of
ler tiipe. At the age of five years, he
married 'Margaret of Scotland, who died
seven years anerwards. Active, bold and
cunning, he was the reverse of his well-
disposed but imbecile father, of whose
ministers and mistress, Agnes Sorei, he
, soon showed himself a decided enemv.
in 1440, he lefl the court, and put himself
at the head of an insurrection at Niort,
known under the name of la Praguerie.
Charles defeated the rebels, executed
some, but pardoned his son, whom he
even trusted, in 1442 and 1443, with the
command against the English and Swiss.
Ijouis conducted himself with valor and
prudence, and his fiither became entirely
reconciled to him ; but, bavins soon en-
tered into new conspiracies, Louis was
obliged to fiee to Dauptiln^, which Charles
lefl at his disposal Contrary to the will of
his fatlier, he married the daughter of the
duke of Savoy, and entertained a treason-
able correspondence with the king's court ;
he is even said to have been accessary
to the death of Aenes Sorel.v His father,
however, obliged him to flee to Burgundy,
and he lived five years at Gennep, in Hai-
nault, in a dependent condition. He re-
peatedlv appeared disposed to return,
when the kiu^^ death seemed to be at
hand, but, with the restoration of his
father's health, always declined so doing.
Charl(» VII died in 1461, having, fipom

fear of being. poisoned by his son, hardly
ventured to eat any thing, and thus lost
his life by excessive care of it. Louis
now hastened to Rheims to be crowned.
He promised pardon to all who had
«sed force against him in the service of
his fiither, excepting seven, whom he did
not name. He swore not to increase the
taxes, and immediately broke his oath.
The ministers of his father were dismissed,
and men of the lower orders — ^barbers,
tailors, &C. — assumed their places. Insur-
rections broke out at Rheims, Alen^on^
&C., in consequence of his imposition of
new. taxes, in violation of his oath; but
they were soon quelled, and followed by
many executions. Louis now made a
tour through the south of his dominions,
supported the king of Arragon in his
usurpation of Navarre, and obtained the
cession of Roussillon and Cerdagne. His
policy became more and more evident
Whifst he pretended to reconcile con-
tending parties, he secretly instigated
them against each other ; and, whenever
he had a meeting with a foreign prince,
he corrupted his courtiers by brib^ and
established secret correspondences with
them : instances of this are to be found in
his conduct as arbitrator between Castile
and Arm^n (1463), at his meeting vnth
Henry IV of Castile, on the Bidassoa,
and, at /an earlier period, at the court of
the duke of Burgundy ; he even formed
the design of seizins tiie duke of Bui*gun-
dy and the count of Charleroi. His vas-
sals rebelled asainst him on account of
his treatment of Francis II, duk^ of Brit-
tany, whom he attempted to deprive of
his rights. The duke, being taken by sur-
prise, had promised every thing required
of him, but encouraged the dukes of Lor-
raiue, Bourbon, Alen^on, Nemours, Bur-
gundy, and the king's brother, the duke
of Berri, to conclude the ligue du Men jyub-
lic^ which, in 1465, began open hostihtiea
The Burgundians besieged Paris, and the
king could force his way to his capital
only by means of the batde of Montih^ry.
But Louis extricated himself, on this as on
other occasions, by artful treaties, which he
never observed longer than he was com-
pelled to. He consented to yield Nor-
mandy to his brother, part of Picardy to
Burgundy, &c.; but, no sooner was the
league dissolved, than he declared that
Normandy could not be severed from
France, and forced his brother to seek
refuge in Brittany. The duke, hoveever,
was too weak singly to maintain the strug-
gle against the king, and signed a sort
of capitulation just as Charles the Bold«

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LOUIS XI.

the young diike of Burguody, approached
wkh an army to his relief. Louis, who
might have, naked a battle with Charles,
preferred negotiation, which, however,
proceeding sfowly, he requested a pass-
port from die duke of Burgundy, and actu-
ally went to visit him at Peronne. He had,
just before, secredy instigated the people of
Liege to rise, and promised them aid.
Chitfkfl, having discovered this act of
treachery, was furious with rage, and
hesitated three days (during which he
kept the king in prison) as to what course
he should adont Nothing but the aver-
sion of Charles to take the life of a
king, and the ffreaiest presence of mind
on me part of the ktter, who asserted his
innocence nnder the most solemn oaths,
saved him.* He was obliged to accom-
pany Charles to Liege, and to wimess the
pillage and slaughter of which he had
been the cause. A peace waa concluded
on fiivorable terms for Charles and his
allies ; but, when Louis returned to Paris,
he used every artifice to evade its fulfil-
ment He had promised to cede Cham-
pagne to his brother, but persuaded him
to take Guieime instead. The duke of
Burgundy, irritated at this conduct, secret-
ly concluded an alliance with England
and Brittany. Meanwhile, Louis XI had
become the father of a prince (afterwards
Chartes VIII), and the duke of Guienne
had lost all hope of ascending the throne
of France. He, therefore, renewed his
connexions with Burgundy. Louis ob-
tained information of^these proceedings,
and soon afler, the duke of Bern died of
poison administered in an apricot It
never has been doubted that th^ king was
the perpetrator of the crime, though he
ordered masses to be said for the deceased.
The duke of Burgundy openly accused
him of the murder of his brother, and also
of an attempt on his life, whilst Louis
charged Charies with a design of assassi-
nating him. The war broke out between
them with renewed fuiy, but an armistice
was soon afler concluded, in which the
duke of Brittany was included. The
kin^ of Arra^n, who had also waged war
agamst Louis, was not a party to this
treaty, and the French king now turned
his arms against that prince, fit>m whom
he wrested a large extent of territory. He
sent the cardinal Joufiiroi against the
count of Arraa^ae, who aton^ for his
constant rebelhons by a terrible death.
During the armistice, Charles had attack-

*Oar readen are aoquaioted with the fine rep-
meatatiDn of this iceii* by tir Walter Scott, m
hisQueatin Durward.

ed NeusB, with great loss. Louis united
with the emperor Frederic III and the '
Swiss, and attacked Burgundy, in 1475.
He concluded a truce of seven years with
Edward lY of England, who had hasten-
ed to assist Charles, by the promise of a
sum of money and a pension, and of
marrying the dauphin to an English
princess. Burgundy and Brittany soon
after concluded another armistice with
him, by which St Quentin vma Jeded to
Louis, and the comUiaUe count St Pol
was given up to him. After the death of
Charies the Bold (q. v.), before Nancy, in

1477, Louis lock possession, by force, of
a considerBble part of^his dominions, as
vacant ^e& of France, and rejected the
proposed marriage of the daughter of
Charles, then 20 years old, with the dau-
phin, who was but ten years of age,
Maximilian, son of the eniperor Frederic
III, obtained the hand or that princess,
with a part of her dominions, and defeat-
ed the forces of Louis at Guinegate in

1 478. After protracted negotiations, peace
was finally concluded, Dec. 23, 1482;
Mary being then dead, and the city of
Ghent remaining fiiithflil to her heirs,
Marearet and Philip. It was agreed thai
the dauphin should marrv Margaret, and
receive the counties of Artois and 3ur-
gundy, &c^ and that Philip should receive
die remaining territories. In 1481, Louis,
who had been twice affected by apoplexy,
haunted by the fear of death, shut him-
self up in his casde of PUssis-Us'Toun,
endeavored to conceal the state of his
health, loaded himself more than ever
vrith images of saints and relics^ contin-
ued to commit crimes and ask pardon for
them from sa bonne dame^ sa petite mat-
iresse (the virgin), and died at last, Aug.
31, 1483. The great object of Louis was.
the consolidation of France, the establish-
ment of the royal power, and the overthrow
of that of the great vaseols. He has often
been blamed for neglecting to marrv the
dauphin to Maiy of Buigundy, and allow-
ing her to be umted to an Austrian prince ;
al») for not taking the opportunity to mar
ry the dauphin to Joanna, daughter of
Ferdinand and Isabella, which would
have made Charles VIII heir of Spain
and America. But Chateaubriand says,
that mere increase of territorial dominion
viras never the policy of Louis. He re-
fused the investiture of Naples, and,
when the Genoese offered to take him
for theur sovereign, he ^answered, **The
Genoese give themselves to me, and I
give them to the devil" His great object
vras to overthrow the feudal aristocncji^

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LOUIS XI— LOUIS xm.

and make himself absolute ; and he neg-
lected no oppoitmiity and spared no crime
to effect his purpose. The chronicles of
the time enumerate four thousand people
who perished on the scaffold, or by the
ffibbet, during his reign. Tristan, his chief
hangman, ivas his fiivorite. His ministers
and comoanions were of the lowest classes.
His cruelties were often studied. The chil-
dren of the duke of Nemours were placed
under tie scaffold, in such a manner that
their fiither's blood flowed upon them ;
thej were then thrown into dungeons,
where they were exposed to great sufier-
ing, and their teeth were pulled out at in-
tervals. There was no ffreat man in his
reign, and no virtue. Fear supplanted
every other feeling. The people were as
submissive as galley slaves. On the other
hand, he encouraged commerce as much
as the ignorance of his times aUowed, was
extremeiv 'active, and attended to every
thing. The contradictory traits of h is char-
acter occasioned a singular opposidon in his
tastes and feelings. He was, at the same
time, confiding and suspicious, avaricious
and lavish, audacious and timid, mild
and cruel. "Towards the end of his
life," siws Chateaubriand, '^ Louis XI shut
himself up in PUssis-Us-Tours, devoured
by fear and ennui. He dragged himself
from one end of a long gallery to the
other, sunrounded bv grates, chains, and
avenues of gibbets feeing to the castle.
The only man who was seen in these
avenues was Tristan, chief hangman, and
the companion of Louis. Fights between
cats and rats, and dances of young peas-
ant boys and girls, served to amuse the
tyrant It is said that he drank the blood
of young children to restore his strength.
De terribUs et de fneroeiUeuses mSdicineSj say
the chronicles, were compounded for him.
Yet his efforts could not avert death.'
Louis XI was the first French monarch
who had the tide of most Christian king."
The principal counsellors of this prince
were rhiUp de Comines (q. v.), and John
du Lude, called, by his master, Jean des
hainkUa.

Louis XII. (See ^pendixy end of this
volume.)

Louis XIII, sumamed the Just, in the
early part of his reign, from what cause is
not known, was bom in 1601, the .son of
Henry IV and Maria de* Medici. He
ascended the throne May 14, 1610, after
the murder of his fiither. Maria de' Med-
ici, who was made euardian of her son
and regent of l!he kingdom, squandered
the treasures of the crown in forming a
paHy for herself and departed fi»m me

principles of her husband, specially by
ibrming a close alliance widi Smdn. The
troops were dismissed, and Sully was
obliged to retire from the court The
princes of the blood and the nobles took
advantage of the weakness of the king-
dom occasioned by these measures ; thev
rose in rebellion, with the marshal Bouif*
Ion at their head. The government was
compelled to yield to their demands, and
these concessions led to still greater en-
croachments upon the rights of the crown
and people. France became the prey of
internal parties and civil dissensions, which
the Florentine Concini, marshal D'Ancre,
prime minister at that time, was utterly
unable to suppress. The disturbances
rose to the highest, when the king, in
1615, married a Spanish princess. Henry
II, prince of Cond^, abandoned the ro^'al
party, and took up arms in conjunction
with the Huguenots. The king, too weak
to oppose th^ attack, made peace with the
prince, but sent him to the Bastile some
time after, whereby another civil war was
kindled, in which, however, the insur-

S^nts had no success, and, the marshal
'Ancre, whom the young kuig hated,
being murdered with his connivance,
(1617), tranquillity appeared to be again re-
stored. (See Jjumes,) But when the
king, soon after, banisned his mother to
Biois, new disturbances arose; for the
people, who had hated Maria on account
of her tyranny, now took compassion upon
her, in her misfortune. The king was
obliged to be reconciled with her, and a
formal peace was concluded at Angou-
l^me (1619|, between the contending par-
ties. But It was hardly signed, when it
was again broken. Maria, at the insti-
gation of the bishop of Lu^on, again
took up arms against her son. A ,new
reconciliation took place, only to be fol-
lowed by new dissensiona During these
disturbances, the Huguenots rose in arms,
with Rohan and Soubise at their head ;
and a great pNort of the kingdom rebelled
against the king, who now delivered him-
self up to the guidance of the cardinal
Richelieu, (q. v.) After victory had in-
clined, sometimes to one side, some-
times to the other, and both parties felt
deeply the necessity of repose, ^esce was
again concluded between the king and
the Huguenots (1623). This also contin-
ued no loncer than the preceding. Ro-
chelle, the liead-quarters of the Hugue-
nots, revolted, and was supported by £lng*
land. The lung drove the Eiu^sh to the
sea, conquered the island of Il6.and at
last (Oct 2d, 1628)^ Rochelle likeTOei^

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LOUIS Xni'-LOUIS XIY.

whicfa, under tbe mritied eommand of the
modier of the do&e of Rohan, had de-
fended itself for more than a year, and
eontMided with all the horrors of anege.
This siege cost the crown 40 million livrea
Afterwards a war arose widi the emperor,
who had refused to the duke of Nevers
the inTestiture of Mantua. The united
forces of the emperor, Spain and Savoy,
were again defeated by the French, at
VegUano (1630), and the duke of Mantua
confirmed in his po sooqoi ons by the peace
ofChi^aeco(]630). The only brother of
the kinff, Gaston of Orleans, now revolted
against him, in conjunction with the queen
mother. The insurgents were, neverthe-
less, defeated ; the duke of Montmorenci.
in alliance with Gaston, was vanquishea
in the batde of Castelnaudaiy, Se|^ 1,
1632, taken prisoner,' and executed at Tou-
louse, Octobier 90, of the eame year. Gas-
ton received a pardon. In the succeed-
ing war with Spain, which continued 25
years, during 13 of which it was waged
in Germany, succeea inclined eometunes
to one side, sometimes to the other ; yet
the king was at last enabled (1636) to ex-
pel fiom the French dominions the Span-
iards, who had landed in Provence, and
the imperial troops which had penetrated
as fiir as Burgundy. The events of the
foUowing year were yet more favorable to
France ; but the exhausted state of the
finances opposed an insuperable obstacle
to the progresB of the French arms. In
this state of misfortune, Louis XIII died,
l^Iay 4, 1643. During Uiis war, Louis had
(Aug. 15, 1638) put bis person, his crown
and kingdom, under the protection of the
holy viiigin ; ft day which was long regard-
ed as a festival in France. His equestrian
statue, in bronze, erected 1639, was de-
stroyed by the people in 1792.

Louis AlV, king of France and Na-
vane, was bom Sept. 5, 1638, after a bar-
renness of 22 years on the part of his
mother. Being, therefore, considered a
pardcular gift of Heaven, he was called
IHeurdonrU. He came into the world
with several teeth, on which subject Gro-
this has some jests in his letters. He died
Sept. 1, ni5. He married, in 1660, Ma-
ria Theresa, daughter of king Philip IV,
who died Julv 30, 1683. In the same
Year, he secretly married Framboise d'Au-
bign^ widow of Scarron (madame de
Maintenon, who died Apru 15, 1719).
His principal mistresses were Fran^oise,
duchess de la Valli^re (see VaUih^), the
marchionesB of Montespan, mother of the
duke of Maine and of the count of Tou-
bMise (see iZoo&ecftouorf ), and Maria An-

gelica d'EscoraOlefl^duchen of Fontanm^
who died in 1681^-Loui8 XIV was five
years of age when his fether, Louis XIII,
died. His mother caused herself to be
declared regent and guardian. To Maza-
rin was intrusted the superintendence of
the education of the kinff, which was
much neglected. But, although Louis
learned nothing from his teacher, the arch*
bishop P^r^fixe, he observed much. A
deep impression was made on him, dur-
ing his minority, by the commotions of
the Fronde (see jFhmcfe, and Retz)j which
set BO many diflferent characters in action.
Sept 7, 1651, Louis proclaimed his ma-
jority ; but Mazarin continued at the head
of the goveinment till his death, March 9,
1661. From this time, Louis rei^ped 54
years^ without any prime minister, m com-

Slete accordance with his own words—
/Hat^ c^esi mot / From Mazarin he had
learned an ambitious policy, and a con-
tempt of the parliament On one occa-
sion, when Mazarin could not effect his
purpose, the younff king, 17 years of age,
entered the hall of the parliament of Par-
is, booted and spurred, with his whip in
his hand, and conmianded an edict to be
registered. Every thing united to sur-
round him with splendor. History, how-
ever, has not connrmed his title of great
Louis possessed some royal qualities, per-
haps afl that are requisite for show. Thus
he was enabled to gratii^ the inclination
of the French for theatrical display ; he
even gave this inclination a permanent
direction. His reign was adorned by great
statesmen and generals, ecclesiastics, and
men of literature and science. The civil
wars had produced the same effect, which
the revolution afterwards produced, of
calling foith men of talent and enercy,
who made the national glory and the
.splendor of the king the object of their
exertions. Louis himself had a taste for
a kind of greatness. ** This was," as John
MfiUer says of him, ** the source of the
benefits which he rendered to the arts and
sciences, of the distiubanees of Europe,
of the violation of all treaties, in short, of
the renmrkable character of his reign."
TTie king was, unfortunately, ignorant, and
destitute of settied principles. U aima
la gloirt et la reHgifm^ sa^s Montesquieu,
a on Vempicha touU savtedt ccnnaUrt m
Time m Vauirt. His person was vigorous
and noble.* With handsome features
and a tall fonn he united a peculiar digni-
ty of language and manner. The noble
and charming tone of his voice won the

* John Kettler. of Zurich, cast aa <
statue of Louis XIV, at Pans, in 1699.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LOUIS XIV.

heart; but the loftmees of his whole de-
meanor uiapired respect Hia kindneas
never paaaed into fiuniliarity. Otie look
of hia kept the witling in check. The
Spaniah gravity, which he inherited from
hia mother, waa tempered by the gracea
of French politeneaa. Naturally ao grave,
tbat even the oldest courtiers never recol-
lected to have heard more than one jest
from hia mouth, he loved, nevertheless,
gayety in others, applauded Moli^re's
comedies, and laughed at the witty sallies
of madame de Montespan. At bis court,
which became a model for all the others
of Europe, every thing had reference to
the kinff, and tended to augment bis dig-
nity. The nearer you approached his per-
son, the higher rdse your awe. It was a
reverence resembling worship, which was
paid to the throne, the person of the king,
and the pride of the nation. On the
whole, to use an expression of Boling-
broke's, hardly ever has a king played his
part better. But a theatrical representa-
tion he always would maintain, even in
trifles ; for example, in his latter years, he
never appeared in the presence of any
one without his ffreat peruke. But he
possessed, nevermeless, qucJities which
are requisite for playing well the part of a
monarch. ** The qualities of his mind,"
says Grouvelle, ^ were justness, solidity,
constancy and application. He united
therewith habitual discretion and the seri-
ousness which conceals deficiencies. He
waa naturally silent, and inctined to ob-
aervation.*' Louis had nothing of the
hero, but he possessed the art of ruling
those who surrounded him. He was no
ffeneral, but was able to appropriate to
himself the reputation of his generals.
Resoluteness and energy elevated him, at
times, above the restrictions of courtly
etiquette. Elarly in life, he danced in the
balieta. But hearing at the theatre, when
Brikmnieus was performed, the verse in
which it is said of Nero, as a reproach, B
excdU h 8t donner Ivi-mimt en spectacle
aux Bomains, he never again danced in
public The manners of his time favored
Lis natural disposition to gallantly. He
loved with enthusiasm, and expressed his
feelings with dignity and tenderness.
With an excellent memoiy, his judgment
was sound ; he knew how to say what
was auitable at the riffht time, and with
dignity and delicacy ; he understood bow
to punish and reward with words. Thus
after the widow of Scanon, aupported by
many firiends, had solicited in vain, for
aeveial years, her husband's pension of
1500 Uvres, he gave her a pension of 3000

liwea, with the woids^ Madame^ je vou$
(d faU aUendre long tenu, mats vous avez
imU (TamiSf que fed vouhi avoir $tul ce
nUrite aiupris de vous. The following
trait shows, that, even in generosity, he had
a dacdi of ostentation. The marquis of
Uxelles, having been compelled to sur-
render Mayence, 32 days after the opening
of the trenches, threw himself at the feet
of the king, whose displeasure he feared,
while he related the reasons of the sur-
render. *^ Rise, marquis," said the king ;
"you have defended the fortress like a
man of spirit, and capitulated like a man
of sense." He intimated to the aged Boi-
leau,.who had retired to Auteuil, and aph
peared but seldom at court, that when his
health permitted him to come to Versailles,
he would always have a half an hour for
him. Louis was above the praise of
trifles. When De Grammont found &ult
with a madrigal of tlie king's, Louis was
pleased, that the couitier, being ignorant
of the author, had spoken so fi^eely. Boi-
lean, also, ventured to blame some verses
which met the king's approbation, and
Louis was by no means displeased. " He
imderstands such things ; it is his busi-
ness," was his remark. Low flattery he re-
pelled : thus he rejected the prize-quesdon
of the French academy — ^** Which of the
virtues of the king deserves the prefer-
ence ?" By the esteem which he manifested
for Boileau, Moli^re, Bossuet, Massillon,
&c., he contributed to inspire the higher
classes with a respect for the arts and sci-
ences, and a taste fer the society of men
of learning and genius. But this was only
meant to give splendor to his reign. Cor-
neille and Lafontaine, and the meritori-
ous scholars of the Port Royal, remained
unnoticed by him. The great Amaud, doc-
tor of the Sorbonue, was compelled to live
almost entirely concealed, from 1641, and
died in exile. Louis was 20 years of age, and
devoted to the pleasures of the court and
chase, when Mazarin died. •* To whom
shall we now apply ?" asked his secreta-
ries of state : •* To me," he replied with
dignity ; and the handsomest man of the
kingdom, who had grown up in perfect
ignorance, with his heart full of ro-
mantic gallantry, devoted himself sedu-
lously to business and the acquisition of
information. In the first half of hisreiffn,
he labored daily eight hours. But nis
natural pride often degenerated into
haughtiness, his love of splendor into use-
less extravagance, his firomess into des-
potism. Determined no longer to tolerate
Calvinism in France, he said — ^''My
grand&ther loved the Huguenots without

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LOUIS XIV.

feeriDg them ; my Mbm ftered, without
loving^ them; I neither fear nor love
them?* He erinoed his severity, also, in the
case ofFouquet, mperintendent of finance,
from whom he accepted a fUe^ when
he was on the point of condemning him
to perpetua] imprisonment, in 1661 ; with
equal cruelty he took revenge for his of*
fended pride, on the pope, in 1662. He
was, as may be seen from his hulntcHom
pour U Dauphxiiy a despot from religious
conviction. As an absolute sovereign, he
regarded himself as the proprietor of all
the possessions of his subjects, but deem-
ed himself bound to make a wise use of
liis power. He rarely, however, mistook
the extraordinary men who signalized his
age and France. He manifested an in-
terest in the advancement of his nation ;
but, deceived by self-love, he submitted to
the influence of others. While he be-
lieved himself free and independent, ma-
dame de Maintenon exercised the strongest
power over him, by her talents, piety and
virtue. His credulity went so far, that he
assured the nuncio, in 1685, that whole
Cities^ such as Uzes, Nismes, Montpellier,
&c^ h|d been converted! While the
Protestants were robbed of their property
and freedom, he was engaged in splendid
hunting . expieditiona Two mentorious
naval officers, who had taken the liberty
to oflfer some modest suggestions respect-
ing a naval school, were imprisoned tor a
year, and cashiered. The reputation of
Louis is the work of bis nunisters and
senerals. (See Twrtmu^ Cond^j Luxtmr
oouyg, Oarftiutf, and ViBara,) Feuqui^res
raised the art of war into a science. Lou-
vois (q. V.) introduced discipline into the
arno^. Vanban ffreatly improved the art
of fortification. Men like Estrades and
D'Avaux, made diplomacy at home in
France. Louis himself was capable of
negotiating immediately with ambassa-
dora, on matters of state. The splendor
of the French court, the boldness dis-
played in the cabinet and the field, the
fame of the nation in arms and arts, intro-
duced the French language into the courts
of Europe, and from the peace of Nime-
guen, in 1678, it gradually supplanted Lat-
in, as tbe official language of states. But
Colbert was the chief source of the great-
ness of Louis and France. That ordering,
creating, and sagacious spirit originated the
great standing armies of Louis, and im-
posed this bunlen on all the ffovemments
of Europe; at the same time, he maintain-
ed 100 ships of the line, and encoursged
manu&cmres, navigation and commerce ;
and die fine French settlement in the

East Indies was founded at Pondieheny.
Ck>lbert developed the astonishing re-
sources of France, in population, natural
riches and national spnit. But, afier his
death, in 1683, Louvois and Louis plucked
the fruit, while they felled the tree. The
pride of the king, and the vanity of the na-
tion, seconded tne ambition of me despotic
minister of vrar. Notwithstanding all this
oppression, disafiection never found a rally-
ing point of reostance. Such gratification
did the nation experience in the splendor of
a cruel and prodigal reign ! Five wars, the
revocation of the edict of Nantes (which
Benj. Constant has well termed Vtrreiarde
Louis XIVy et U crime de mm conseil)^
the building of Versailles, the hatred of the ,
nations, the battle of La Hogue, and die
deep policy of William HI of England,
overthrew the power of Louis in the
Spanish war of^ succession. Favorable
circumstances, the opinion of the age, and
the consciousness or strength on the part
of a people not yet corrupted, were all
that preserved from downfiill the tottering
throne of the failing king. Death rapidly
snatched away those who stood nearest
him ; first his only son, then his grand-
son, with his grandson's vrife and eldest
son, the hopes of France. The court in-
trigues, satiety, devotion, and the religious
predominance of Maintenon, together with
the influence of his confessor. La Chaise,
and his fiir worse successor, Tellier, finom
1709, made the heart of the aged kin^ in-
different to the state of his domimons.
The proud Louis, who imagined himself
competent to every thing, who, after the
death of his great minister, selected young
men, whom he could guide at pleasure,
was, at last, so led astray by his confessor,
Tellier, that he caused the constitution l/m-
genUus, drawn up according to Tellier^s
plan, W three Jesuits, to m issued as a
bulVn 1713, by pope Clement XI,who was
equally deceived, thus giving the Jesuit
party the triumph over theur opponents,
and, at the same time, producing commo-
tions, which continued for forty yean to
agitate the church and state. Louis man-
ifested, however, a strength of mind and
firmness in death, as well as in the misfor-
tunes which, in his last years, shook his
throne and house ; for Heinsius, Eugene
and Marlborouch humbled the pride of
France before the Spanish throne was se-
cured to the second grandson of Louis, bv
the death of Joseph I and the victory of Vilr
Ian at Demain. He submitted to all con-
ditions, unless thev were dishonorable,
but such he rejected with scorn. When
Philip was dually estabfiahed on the

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LOUIS XIV.

throne at Madrid, the partition wall of the
F^nees was not destroyed, as Louis had
hoped, when he said to his ciandson, on
his depaiture, Mn^a fdus de PyifyUs ;
and France was burdened with a debt of
2,500,000,000 iivres. The plan of attach-
ing Spain to France, in order to counter-
act the connexion of England and Hol-
land (which threatened the French com-
merce, navigation and colonies^ exhausted
X France, and laid the foimdation of that
revolution wliich was not to terminate
till a century afier the death of Louis XIV.
Grouvelle says, therefore, of him, with
justice — *^ We may allow him good qual-
ities, but not virtue. The misfortunes of
succeeding reigns were, in part, his work,
and he Ims hardlr inJfluenced posterity,
except for its rmJ* The same judgment
is passed by madanHr de Btael, in her Re-
flections on the French Revolution. What
is called the age of Louis XIV, as com-
pered with P-iricles, Augustus and the
Medid, was a result of the impulse which
circumstances communicated to the na-
tional genius. Louis, who was not him-
self possessed of a great, comprehensive
mind, and who was much and laborioudy
occupied on trifles, patronized, genius
only as a necessary mstrument for his
purposes. At Colbert's suggestion, he
founded the academy of sciences and
that of inscriptions ;. he improved the
French academy, encouraged able writers
to raise hts reputation and the French
language above the hatred of nations,
and the sphere of its influence was wider
than that of his armies. His nation gave
laws to Europe, in matten of taste. The
tone of French society was a model for
the German courts, and corrupted the
spirit of the npbili^, while it desbroyed
morals. It is not, however, to be forgot-
ten, that the expulsion of the Huguenots
from France also promoted the dmusion
of the French language and manners.
The great art of pleasing was the soul of all
the ouier arts in France ; it even opened to
science itself the avenue to the circles of
the polished classes. Pascal, who wrote
with vigor and delicacy, the sublime Bos-
suet, and Fenelon, splendid in his humili-
ty, the great Comeiile, who boldly took
his flight above the surrounding baiiia-
rism, me unique Moli^re, the immltable
Fontaine, and the calm thinker and spirit-
ed satirist, Boileau, the fiiend of the clas-
sical Racine, kindled the blaze of light
and philosophy in France. *< Their elec-
trical shock roused," as John von M(iUer
expresses himself^ ''the north fifom the mo-
notonous studies of its universities." The

floe arts were not negfected. OfLebmn's
epoch of art under Louis XIV, we are
reminded by 34 paintings by this master
in the museum of the Louvre. The
Flemish school, particulariy Teniers, did
not please the kinff. Leeueur, Poussin
and Af ignard were me ornaments of the
French school. Giiardon was distin-
guished among the sculptors. Lendtre
bud out the splendid gardens of Versailles;
Perrault built the colonnade of the Lou-
vre, Hardouin Mansard the dome of the
invalids. Lulli was the creator of French
music A lane proportion of the great
monuments of France, which excite the
astonishment of the traveller, had their
origin in the reign of Louis. He con-
structed the wonderful harbors, ship-
yards and fortifications at Brest, Rochefort,
L'Orient, Havre, Dunkirk, Cette and Tou«
Ion. At his biddinff, the canal of Longue-
doc united the A^diterranean with the
ocean. — See Voltaire's Sikle de Lofuia
XIF, the duke de St. Simon's (Entores
eanmlHespour aervir h riRttoire dea Court
de iMim XIVy de la Rkgence ti de Louis
XV; and the Mbmin* de Dangeauy as
well diose published bv madame de Gen-
lis, as those published by Lemoncey (Par-
is, 1818), in his Eaioi wr rttaUissemeni
fMnarchique de Louii XIV; the Glwrea
de Louis X/F (vol. i— vi, Paris, 1806),
published by the diplomatist Grouvelle
and the count Grimoard, and the Conr
sidiraHoru sur Louis X/F, by GrouveUe,
contained in this selection, which, al-
though too fiivorable, are an excellent in-
troduction to the histofy of this monarch.
The Instructions pour le DoMphin^ of
1661 — ^1668, comprised in that w6rk, are
supposed to have been taken down by
PeusBon, fiiom the mouth of the kin^.
But Louis himself did not practise his

Erecepts. Thus he warns the dauphin to
eware of the influence of fiivorites, and
still more of the love of the female sex,
which tends to divert the mind from bu(d-
nesB. These writings, besides other hin-
torical matter, contain information respect-
ing the system of corruption practised by
Louis XIV, even at German coiuts, e. ^
at Berlin. The Mimoires and Pieces mt-
liUnreSf which constitute the third and
fourth volumes of the woric, relate to the
campaigns of 1672—1678, and that of
169Sl In Grimoard's preface, they are
said to be not unimportant for the history
of the vnur. The lettera of Louis, in the
two last volumes of this woric, are mostly
of little consequence. The politeness and
dignity with which this proud king writes
to his ministers and generals are remark-

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LOUIS XIV.

able. This delicate tone was tfien gen*
eral, and gave to language and manners
that agieeahle refinement which made
Paris 80 attiactiTe.

PoUHcal Oecumncea during 1hi$ Reigru
The most splendid period of the reign of
Louis XIV extended from the peace of the
Pyrenees, concluded by Mazarin, in 1659,
to the death of the great Colbert, in 1683.
That peace, however, lasted only till 1665,
when Louis, on the death of his iather-in-
law, Philip IV, kinff of Spain, laid claim
to the Spanish Neuierlands, by virtue of
the right of decoluUonj as it was called
(which was a private law in part of the
Netherlands, but could by no means be
considered the rule of succession to the
government of these states), Holland,
therefore, concluded, in 1668, a triple alli-
ance with England and Sweden, for the
preservation of the Netherlands, of which
alliance, although Louis was victorious in
two campaigns, the peace of Aix-la-Cha-
pelle was the result Louis retained, in-
deed, the conquered places in the Nether-
lauds, but was compelled to abandon his
intentions on the country at laree, and, as
be attributed this to the triple alliance, he
rpsotved on a retaliatory war aeainst Hol-
land, having previously succeeded in sep-
arathig England and Sweden from their
connexion with the republic, and uniting
them with himself. This war, undertaken
without regard to the commerce of France,
to which It was very detrimental, and in
which Spain, the German emperor and
Brandenbuiv also engaged against France,
continued mm 1672 till 3ie peace of
Nimeguen, concluded 1678 and 1679, in
whi^h Holland lost nothing, while Louis
XIV received from Spain, Burgundy (the
Franche Comt^l which the kmg of Spain
had previously held, as an appurtenance
to the circle of Burgundy, under the sove-
reignty of the German empire, and 16
places in the Netheriands. Louis lost, in
this war, his two greatest generals, Tu-
renne and Cond^ ; the former fell at Sas-
bach, in 1675 ; the latter retired in 1676,
on account of his feeble health. Louis,
however, still had Catinat, Crequi, Lux-
embourg, Schomburg and Vauban. After
the peace of Nimeguen, it would have
been politic for Louis to have ceased pros-
ecuting, for a while, his plans of affgran-
dizeroent ; but he renewed, immeoiatelv
after, the rkadonsj as they were called.
In the three treaties of peace, a number
of places, vrith all their appurtenances,
bad been ceded to France, tnou^h it had
not been decided what really did pertain
to them. Louis, therefore, establisiied, in

VOL. VIIL 9

1680, chamben of r^imiofif at Mecz and
Brisach, whose office it was to accord him,
under the form of ri^t, eveiy thing tlmt
couki be conadered m any vny as be-
longing to those phuses. France, in this
manner, acmiiied large districts on the bor-
ders of the Netheriands and of Germany.
Louis would also gladly have obtained
Strasburg, but, as even the chambers of
rhmians could start no formal claim to it,
this important place was quietly surround-
ed by soldiers, and compelled to surren-
der, in 1681, without a blow. Spain and
the German empire protested against this
act, but both found it expedient, in 1684,
to euter into a 20 years' truce with Louis
XIV, by which this monarch obtained,
for that time, besides Strasburg, all the

S laces reunited prior to August 1, 1681.
Eeanwbile, Colbert had di^ in 1683.
From this time, France declined with the
same rapidity that it had risen under his
administration. The first blow it receiv-
ed, was the revocation of the edict of
Nantes, October 22, 1685, after several
vears* oppressions of the Protestant party,
by which measure the kingdom lost
700,000 of its most valuable subjects. To
this measure the king was led by the
tmited exertions of the two parties of the
court, in other respects opposed to each
other— the parties of the minister Louvois
and of Maintenon, who cooperated with
the generally benevolent confessor of the
king, Lachaise. Colbert, to his death, had
opposed the adoption of violent measures,
which might induce the Protestants to
emigrate. France was, soon after, involve* i
in a new war. Several circumstances
pave Louis XIV and Louvois opportunity,
m spite of the 20 yeare' truce, to enter
the field anew. The war, which Louis
now waged from 1688 to 1697, against
Grermanv, Holland, Spain, Savoy and
England, was terminated by the peace of
Ryswick, in which Louis resigned all the
r^ntofu, and, in addition, ceded to Ger-
many, Brisach, Friburg, Kehl and Phil-
ipsburg, besides all the smaller fortresses
erected by France on the Genuan side of
the Rhine. Although, throughout the
war, Louis was conqueror rather than
conquered, he was bent on peace. The
exliaustion of his kingdom, and especially
the. fear that a continuance of the war
might frustrate his views on the Spanish
succession, compelled him to yield. The
death of Charles II, king of Spain, to
which Louis had Ions looked forward,
took place at the end of 1700. Louis had
already concluded treaties of partition,
with respect to the Spanish eaccemoUf

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"»

UOVai XlV— iXXJlB XV.

with En^andand HoOand; batCbvlM
n, by a aeopQt tafltament, had desiffiiated
the grandsoa of liouis, Philip of Aiyou,
ea heir of the Wiole monarchy, to the
disadvantage of the house of Austria, in
which the inheritance was kntimately
vested. On the enforcement of this tes-
tament Louis insisted, after the death of
Charles, and was thus involved in the
Spanish war of succession, 1702 — 13,
which he precipitated by acknowledging
the English pretender (son of James 11^
in violation of the peace of Ryswic^k.
The finances of Louis were in great dis-
order ; he had also lost manv of his great
men in the cabinet and field ; while, on
the other hand, his numerous enemies —
England, Holland, the emperor and the
German empire, Prussia, Ponugal and
Spain— «ould oppose to him two of the
greatest generals — ^Eugene and Marlbor-
ough. FraDce sufiered greatly by this
war, which was terminated by the treaty
of Utrecht, in 1713, and those of Rastadt
and Baden, in 1714, brought about by the
concurrence of several circumstances fa-
vorable to France, especially by the change
that took place in the political system of
England, in 1710, after Louis had several
times pro^^red peace, without success, on
account of the hard terms insisted on by
bis enemies. Louis made, indeed, some
concessions to England, Holland and Sa-
voy, but saw his grandson acknowledged
as kinff of Spain, under the name of
Philip V, This, however, was connected
with the condition of a renunciation,
which should prevent the possibility of
any future union of the Spanish and
French crowna The internal prosperity
of the kingdom was totally ruined by this
war, of which the expenses, in the year
1712 alone, amounted to 825,000,000
livres. The great array which he kept on
foot, was what chiefly excited and nour-
ished in Louis the love of conquest He
maintained a larger standing army than
any other prince of his time. It rose
from 140 to 300,000 men. Respecting the
policy of Louis XIV, the following is the
langutte of Flassan : — "The cabinet of
Louis AlV, notwithstanding the diversity
of talents of his ministers, exhibits, in
its most important negotiations with for-
eign powera, almost always the same
character of lofty pretension. The spirit
of ills policy may be clearly seen in the
manner in which he in^sted on interpret-
ing the treaties of Miinster, of the Pyre-
nees, and of Nimef^en, and the renunciap
tion of queen Mana Theresa. The means
of imparting validity to such ariutraiy ez-

pianationa, were, force of uam, attM fr
i^macy, expert spies^ and conruptioii.
The king expended great sums in secur-
ing the favor of sovereigns — Charles II,
for example, of England— 4heir miniaten
and mistresses. Against his enemies, ho
employed, even in tiroes of war, clandes*
tine popular excitements ; he encouraged
the commotions in Catalonia, Sicily, Eng-
land, Portugal and Hungary. More than
any kin^ l^fore him, he enlarged the
boundanes of the kingdom, especially
towards the north ; by which means, he
secui'ed the capital against the accidents
of war. Till the battle of La Hogue,
May 29, 1692, in which the combined
English and Dutch fleet, under admiral
Russel, overcame the French admiral
Tourville, he maintained the balance of
power on the ocean, and made his flag
respected ^ by the natives of Barbary and
by the most powerful maritime states. On
the continent, he held a decided predomi-
nance till tiie peace of Nimeguen, so that
he had no reason to fear any coalition of
the other powers. To this his connexion
with Sweden and some of the small Ger-
man principalities mainly contributed.
He subeequentiy fell somewhat fl^)m this
high elevation, but continued to be the
fiiit sovereign of Europe, even after his
defeats in the Spanish war of succession ;
for, afler he had severed the league form-
ed against him by the peace with Eng-
land, neither Austria nor the German em-
pire could long ofier resistance." To this
foreign policy, favored by the weakness
and political errors of his neighbors, was
added an arbitrary internal administration.
The system of police, organized by D'Ar-
senson, in the last years of the reign of
Louis, was, in its efl^ts, as formidable as
an inquisition.

Louis XV, the sreat grandson of Louis
XIV, and son of^that excellent duke of
Burgundy (q. v.), who was educated by
F^nelon, was bom February 15, 1710,
commenced his reign in 1715, and died
May 10, 1774. He married, m 1725, Ma-
ria, the daughter of Stojiislaus Leczyn-
ski (she died in 1768). The History of
Louis XV, by Antoine Fantin Desodoards
(Paris, year VI, 3 vols.), and the Age
of Louis XV, by Araoux Laffiney, pub-
lished by Maton (Paris, 1796, 2 vols.\ do
not coirespond to what might be expect-
ed from French writers, after Voltaire's
work on the reign of this king. The
memoirs of Ducios, St Simon and others,
the Histoiy of France in the 18th cen-
tury, by Lacretelle (Paris, 1811, 6 vola),
and the well known work La VU prioi^

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LOUIS Xt.

f»

ifc tofmg XF{A Tofe.), cmitBin imporuoit
materials for the history of this unworthy
and degraded king, who, by his licen-
tioasness, bigotry, prodigality and despot-
ism, rendered the evils of the state incu-
rable. The age which educated and coiv
nipted him, and on which he and his court
reacted in a not less injurious manner,
explains not only the orfgin, but also the
spuic and malignity of the revolution. A
great part, however, of this fault, falls on
the repency, administered by Philip, duke
of Orleans, and the cardinal Dubois, till
172a (See Orleans, PhiHp of^ The in-
fluence of the age of Louis ^IV on the
religious and political notions of the cul-
tivated classes, and especially the increas-
ing power of public ofiinion in France
during the reign of Louis XV, are con-
spicuous. The characteristic of the age
of Loub XV, consists in the intellectual
developement of the nation, in the splen-
dor and boldness of new philosophic
views, which had so strong an influence
on society. From them proceeded a
fearful separation of reason fix)m mo-
rality, of the passions from rectitude, and
of enlightened ideas from the forms of
state and church. The immoderate love
of pleasure, which, from the higher, de-
scended into tlie lower classes, and was de-
fended or excused by the philosopliy of the
day, was united with an avaricious selfish-
ness,which was awakened bythc rash finan-
cial schemes of Law and tJie regont, and
connected with fhiud,despair,and the bank-
ruptcy of 500,000 citizens* From this love
of pleasure and selfishness, proceeded most
of the faults and vices of the contempo-
raries of Louis XV. The moral infection
spread farther and farther, and ate deeper
and deeper into the roots of public s)>irit
and every civil virtue. Louis XIV left
his great grandson and successor with tlie
wonls, "I have, against my inclination,
imposed great burdens on my subjects ;
buj have been coinpelled to do it by the
long wars which I have l>een obliged to
mamtain. Love peace, and undertake no
war, except when the good of the state
and the welfare of your people render it
necessary.'' A much deeper impression
should have been made on the mind of
the royal child, by the conduct of the
people who accompanied the hearse of
the king with insults and the grossest
expreanons of ioy. But what an idea
must the boy of six years have formed
fiom the hi de justice (the strongest exer-
lioD o£ despotism), held by the regent, to
confirm his re^ncy! How different were
the views of his ftther, the noble duke of

Bimundy, who intended, in dee he a»-
cended the throne, to restore to the people
their lost riffhts ! In his 7th year, Louis
was first placed under the care of men.
But his tutor, the marriial Villeroi, was no
Montausier, Beauvilhers or F^n^lon. On
one occamon, when Louts had recovered
fit>m a violent sickness, his subjects mani-
fested their satisfaction by repeated re-
joicings. The court and gardens of the
Tuileries were full of men. Villeroi car-
ried the kinjf from one window to anoth-
er. " See them, my king ! your people :
all tills people belongs to you ; all that
you see is your property ; you are lord
and master of it." The instructor of the
young king,the prudent and modestFleury,
won the confidence of his pupil in a no-
ble manner. A third, who had, however,
less influence on the voung king, was his
confessor, the Jesuit Lini^res. The car-
dinal Dubois had effected his appointment
to tliis important office against Fleiiry's,
wish and the advice of cardinal NoaiUes. '
Ffeuiy, however, acquired the entire con-
fidence of Louis, who, after the death of
tlie regent, in 1724, by the advice of his
instructer, • appointed the duke of Bour-
bon chief minister of state, who could
undertake nothing, however, without the
knowledge and consent of the prelate,
then 73 years old. Till now, the king,
who entered upon the government him-
self in 1723, but had hitherto intrusted
the management of affairs to the former
regent, as first minister of state, had
shown no will of his own. A Spanish
princess of six years had been destined
for his wife, and had been subsequendy
sent back to her parents; the marshal
Villeroi had been banished from tlie court,
and the king had married Maria Leczyn-
ski, the daughter of Stanislaus, the de-
throned kbg of Poland, mdifferent and
submissive in all these proceedings. But
when the party of the duke attempted to
get rid of the prelate, and the offended
FIcur}' had retired to his country seat, the
king insisted on his return with such firm-
ness, that the duke found himself obliged
to apply to the prelate, and solicit his re-
turn. Soon after, m 175J6, Fleury was
placed at the head of the administration,
tie declined the tide of first minister, but
vras, in fact, such till his death, in 1743.
His habit of dissimulation extended it-
self to the king, in whose private life a
great change now took place, probably
favored by Fleuiy himself. rThe nobis
germ which his appfication and 8om»
generous expressions nad manifested, vm
stifled in sensual pleoflures and the luxury

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100

LOUIS XV.

of a ooiut life. The peaceful Flemy,
who eodeayored to ratore order and
economy, now gave the enervated mon-
archy a eeyen gears' tranquillity ; but he
was not sufficiently enlightened to com-
poee the controversy respecting the bull
Unigmihu. He soon saw himself, con-
trary to his will, involved in a war. After
the death of Augustus II, king of Poland,
in 1733, Louis vna^^ed to see his father-in-
law chosen successor of Augustus, and
declared that the freedom of election
should be interrupted by no foreign pow-
er ; but the emperor Charles VI, having
concluded an alliance with the elector of
Saxony, and supported his election as
king of Poland, Louis's plan was firus-
trated, and a war broke out. After two
camp^gns. France acquired for Stanis-
laus, who had fled from Dantzic in dan-
ger of his life, che possession of the duch^
of Lorraine, by the preliminaries 6f Vi-
enna, in 1735. After the death of Charles
VI, in 1740, the project of marshal Belle-
isle, to dismember the Austrian herediuiry
states, plunged the aged cardinal into a
war, the success of which was frustrated
by the parsimony of the minister, tlien 85
years old. The French armies fought on
the side of the elector of Bavaria, who
laid claim to the whole Austrian mon-
archy. England was on the side of Ma-
ria Theresa. The conquest of Bohemia
was not accomplished ; scarcely could
MailleboLs, Belleisle and Broglio effect
the retreat of tlie wreck of the defeated
army from Bohemia and Bavaria, over
the khine. Still greater were the losses
of France by sea ; for Fleury had neg-
lected the marine. After his death, m
1743, the victories of count Maurice of
Saxony (see Maurice) gave new splendor
to the French arms ; and, by the peace of
Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, France regained
her lost colonies. But the state was, more
tl)an ever, exhausted by an unjust and im-
politic war. Louis had himself taken a
))art in several campaigns, and, when he
was attacked at Metz by a severe mala-
dy, received the appellation of the well-
beloved (le hien-airrU), The affection felt
for him by the French exceeded his de-
serts ; for Louis became, from this dme,
more and more unworthy of the public
respect, sinking into the grossest indo-
lence and sensuality, and amuidoning the
management of state affairs to the mar-
chioness of Pompadour. (See Pompcuhvtr,)
She was, in reahty, the ruler, the monarch
being absorbed in his orgies, or childish
amusements and despotic fears. He
■bowed himael^ without dignity, the

, sport of petty passoDflii and die infltni*
ment of extemaJ influences. The Dation,
on which ao powerless a goyemmmic
could have no efiect, fbUowed entirely
its resdesB caprices. Contests of pubUc
opinion, bold hopes and new systems,
amused and engaged all classes of so-
ciety. Every one longed for a new and
better state ; obedience became more and
more lax, the wish of change more de-
cided ; a few steps more would lead to in-
surrecuon. The sensuality 6f the king

Cut him entirely in the power of tlie am-
itious Pompadour. While she made
him lead the shameless life of an Eastern
monarch, she sacrificed, according to the
caprice of the moment, the honor, wealth,
and the prosperity of the state, to those
who were able to gain access to her by
their attractive qualities. She accustomed
the king to the acquUs de compUxnty or
warrants for payment, which exhausted
the treasury, and introduced confusion
into the accounts. The cost of the oorc-
auX'CerfSy as it was called, — the most abom-
inable instrument of tlie king's voluptu-
ousness, — was defrayed by such acquits^
which, according to Lacretelle, amount-
ed, eventually, to 100,000,000fr. Lou-
is also loved to play deep, and ap-
propriated, for this purpose, a private
chest, the losses of which lie supplied
from the public chest Those who lost
to him were indemnified by lucrative pul>-
lic offices. In order to increase this fiind,
he engaged in stock-jobbmg and in spccu-
ladons in grain. The rise and foil of the
stocks, and die price of com, interested him
in a manner entirely unbecoming a-king.
He appropriated a capital of ten millions,
from his private treasury, to tliis disgrace-
ful traffic, and even allowed the name of
M. Mielavand to be introduced into the
state almanac of 1774, among the offi-
cers of finances, as trisorier des grains
pour h compte de S, M, To relieve his
ennui, he printed several books, and was
even pleased with the celebrated physio-
cratical system of his physician Quesnay.
He called him his thinker (pensewr\ lis-
tened with satisfaction when he censured
the policy of his ministers, but never
troubled himself about the application of
his ideas. Towards women he conduct-
ed, in public, with the courteousness of a
French chevalier, mingled in their petty

3uarrels, and placed the part of a conn-
ant He was mquisitive about the in-
tri^es of all the courts of Euro))e, and,
to inform himself respectinj^ them, main-
tained secret agents, of which his minis-
ters, in many cases, knew nothing. The

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LOUIB XV.

101

d^pufifedy nnsJy cotknict of th6 dftuphiiiy
the Tinues of the dauphineaB, made no
pennaoent imiMiesBion on him. He somo-
timesy however, seemed to feel remone,
especiaUy after the death of the queen.
But be soon sought and found solace m
his old pleasures. From the year 1769,
he was goremed by Du Bany (see Barry\
who is said to have cost the royal treasu-

Z, in ^ve years, 180 million Uvres. As
>uis became older, his bigotry and apa-
thy increased, wliile he sank deeper in
sensuality. His secret debaucheries dis*
hcxiored innocence, and poisoned the do-
mestic happinesB of his subjects. The
public contempt was expressed in satires,
caricatures and songs, to which the people
had already become accustomed under
the regency. The hatred of the people
gave credence to the most exaggerated ac-
cusations, and Louis, from fear and aver-
Bon, withdrew himself from the public
eye. With tliis carelessness and apathy
of the king, tlie French levity increased
continually ; every one was engaged with
triBes and selfish plans ; the most impor-
tant affidrs of state, on the contrary, were
neglected. France, at the same time, saw
itself involved, in 1754, in a maritime war
with England, on account of the forts on
the Ohio, and, as if this contest was of
no importance, rashly took the side of
Austria against P^issia, in 1756. The
shrewd Kaunitz had gained the favor of
the vain Pompadour, who was offended
by the sarcasms of Frederic II. By her
influence, the duke de Choiseul (q.v.)
was appointed fiist minister, in the stead
of the abb^ Bemis, and. May 1, 1756^ a
new alhance was concluded with Austria,
at Versailles, which wa& unique in history.
The French suffered great losses by sea
and land ;^ even their military reputation
had declined since the batde of Rossbach,
Nov. 5, 1757 ; and, afler seven unhappy
years, they had reason to congratulate
themselves, when Choiseul concluded a
])eaoe with England at Fontainebleau, in
1762, and the definitive treaty was settled
at Paris, in 1763, although France had to
relinquish to England, Canada, as far as
the Mississippi, Cape Breton and the
islands Grenada, Tobago, St Vincent and
Dominica, together wi3i Minorca. Louis
remained incOfTerent to all these events.
The first time that he saw marshal Riche-
lieu afler the conquest of Mahon, in 1756,
be turned to that general, vrbo was adored
by the whole natk>n, with the question,
** How did you like the Minorca figs ?'
The famous ftmily compact of the K>ur-
lioosi by which Choiseul hoped^ ia the

coufse of die war (176Ij^ to unite forever
the policy of SiMun, Sicily and Parma
with the French interest, was of no great
benefit to France. After the war, Choi-
seul's minisby was marked bv several
(often violent) ref(Mins ; especially by the
expulsion of the Jesuits from France, in
1764, and by the acquiation of Corsica,
in 1769. Shortly after, Mme. du Bany, in
connexion vrith the chincellor, Maupeou,
effected the overthrow of the duke De
Choiseul, and elevated to his post the
duke of Aiguillon. The quanel of the
latter with the pariiament at Rennes^
which had written against him in a vio-
lent tone, as former governor of Bretagne,
and the refractoriness of all the partia-
ments, especially with respect to the new
oppressive financial edicts, induced the
king, in 1771, to banish the members of
the narliament from Paris, and, soon after»
to aoolish the parliaments entirely, which
were first reestablished under Louis XVI„
in 1774, with certain limitations. The
notorious edict which the chancellor
Maupeou then issued, called the king the
sole and supreme legislator of his king-
dom, who permitted parliament, indeed,
to protest against a new law, but, after
two considerations, miffht demand uncon-
ditional obedience. Thus Maupeou made
the absolute will of the monarch a consti-
tutional law! A worthy counterpart of
Maupeou was the comptroller-general of
finances, the abb^ Terrai, who impover^
ished the country, while he received an
income of 1^200,000 livres. In proportion
as the king was despised at home, the au-
thority of France was lessened abroad.
The partition of Poland took place in '
1773, without the knowledge of^ France.
Afler having sunk into a complete nullity,
the king, whom no domestic misfortunes^
not even his own attempted assassination^
in 1757, by a &natic, Damiens (see Da-
mien$)j nor the public misery, could restore
to consciousness, died of the small pox»
caught of a yoimg girl, by whom the
countess Du Barry vrisbed to dispel his
melancholy, leavinga debt of 4,000,000,000
livres.

^ge of Lotds XV. — ^In proportion bb
the reign of Louis was weak and per-
nicious to the state, the spirit of the nation
rose, awakened by the times of Louis
XIV, and by distinguished men in the
arts and sciences. In Paris, public insti-<
tudons arose ; palaces and churches were.
Imilt (for example, the church of St..
Genevieve, l^ SoufSot, &c^^ the militaiy
school of Paris, and the Champs Eliaius^
wen laid QUX ia IT^bjtheminitfexc^

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103

LOUIS XV.

wmr, count IVArgenson ; the intendant,
Tmdaine, prosecuted, with euccess, the
oODBtruction of roads. The commerce
of Lyons and Bordeaux adorned these
cities with regal splendor. Stanislaus
Leczynski, who died in 1776, restored the
public prosperity in Lorraine, and Pigal
executed a splendid monument, which was
erected in Strasburg, to the marshal Saxe,
who died in 1750. \)f the numerous paint-
ers of this period, the best were Lemoine
and Vemet But taste degenerated under
the influence of a voluptuous court, and
art paid homage to luxury. It delighted
in empty show, but, at the same time, car-
ried manufactures to perfection. Theinge-
. nious Vaucanson applied his talents to the
improvement of the Gobelin manufactory.
(See Gobelin.) Louis XV himself took
an interest in the porcelain manufactory
established at Sevres, by the advice of
madcune do Pompadour. At the same
time, he is said to have suppressed, from
humanity, a means of destruction, which
would have been more formidable than
the Greek fire ; but this is not historically
proved. Enterprising and intelligent men,
like La Bourdonnaye, the founder of the
colonies of the Isle de France and Bour-
bon, and even his calumniator, Dupleix,
extended the commerce of France. Lou-
isiana^ Canada, especially St. Domingo
and the Lesser Antilles, the colony on the
Senegal, and the ports of the Levant, em-
ployed the French activity, and enriched
the maritime cities. But, by the unjust
measures of La Bourdonnaye, tlie state de-
prived itself of the advantages acquired in
the East Indies over England ; and, while
France lost Canada and several islands by
the manner in which it carried on the
war (from 1756—62), it promoted the
British power in India. The third estate,
however, gradually acquired, by its wealth
and intellectual advancement, consequence
and influence. Public opinion assumed,
in the a^ge of Louis XV, the character of
levity, frivolity and boldiiet^ which was
afterwards so strongly develof)ed in the
revolution. Striking events, such as the
trial of the imfortunate John Calas (q. v.),
'and the execution of the young chevalier
I>e Labarre ^q. v.), for sacrilege, brought
new opiuions mtOjQ;eneral circulation. But
the evil genius of France willedthat the de-
cline of morals and reli^on, contemporary
with the abuses of arbitrary power, with
prevalent projudipes and the oppressions of
the priesthood, should change the li^ht of
truth, just springing up in France, mto a
desu-oyinff fire, and the defensive weapon
of knowledge into a two-edged sword;

that the egotism of senauafity should gfuxk
poesession of the territoiy of reason, and
that brilliant wit should fa!e more esteemed
than a serious purpose and a solid charac-
ten This unhappy concurrence of the
public misery with sensual licentiousness,
stifled those improved views, and that
scientific cultivation, which Montesquieu
and others, to whom France was indebt-
ed for its intellectual influence on the
higher classes of society, in^ a great part
of Europe, exerted themselves to dissemi-
nate. The ignorant, stupified Louis had
an abhorrence of all intellectual cultiva*
tion. He feared talented writers, and fiie-
quendy said of them, that theynvould be
the cause of ruin to the monarchy. He,
nevertheless, followed, in the first part of
his reign, the advice of cardinal Fleury,
who highlv esteemed the sciences, and
subsequently yielded to the opinion of
the court, and especially of Pompadour,
who took a pleasure in being denominated
the patron of genius, and a judge of the
excellent The most powerful and per-
manent influence on the spirit of the na-
tion was exerted by Voltaire, who com-
menced his splendid career, in 1716, with
the tragedy of (Edipus. Louis had an
aversion to him, but the marchioness in-
duced him to appoint Voltaire his histori-
Offrapher and groom of the chambers.
Meanwhile, the preference visibly mani-
fested by the court towards the poet Cre-
billon, inspired the author of the Henriadt
with a disgust at residing in Paris. Si-
multaneously with him, the immortal
Montesquieu awoke the powers of reflec-
tion and of wit in the nation. His Letbres
Persannes (1721) kindled the spirit of
public criticism, and his work iSiir Us
Causes de la Grandeur et de la Dicadence
des Romains [I7^)y like his Esprit des Lens
(1734), became a classic manual for the
study of politics. About this time, the
interest universally felt in scientific sub-
jects, induced cardinal Fleury and count
Maurepas to persuade the king to ascer-
tain the truth of Newton's opinion re-
specting the form of the earth by the
measurement of a degree in a high north-
em latitude and under the equator, which
was undertaken in 1735 and 1736, and to
potronize Cassini's map of France. After
1749, J. J. Rousseau, Diderot, D'Alem-
bert, Duclos, Condillac and Helvetius aro
found in the ranks of the great writers of
France. The greatest agitation in public
opinion was caused by the DiOionnairt
JElncydopidique of Diderot and D'Alem-
bert, against which the clerey, particular-
ly the Jesuits, and .the minister^ rose en

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LOUIS XV— LOUIS XVL

lOB

No ksB attentioii was exeited by
the woikofHelyetiu8,I>er£fprtt Even
the ladies took a veiy active part in the
contest of philosophy. Bureaux d^esfrU
'were formed, anci from the philosophjcal
circles at the bouses of the baron or Hoi-
boch and Helvetius, there proceed^ sev-
eiai works in support of materialism and
atheism, especially from 1758 to 1770.
The most famous of them is the Susihne
dt la Mature, of which the baron of Hoi-
bach is regarded as the author. Religion
was shamelessly assailed by La Mettrie,
IVAigens, the abb6 de Piades, who, ban-
ished from France, sought refuge with
Frederic II, but whose opinions found
reception in France. Condemnation by
the Sorbotme only excited opposition, and
the boldness of the age loved to defend
rash and splendid errors, if they afforded
opportunity for the exhibition of acuteness.
No work was more destructive of public
morals than Voltaire's PweUe—^ talented
poem, which the licentious spirit of the
times of the regency alone could have
inspired. But l:^tter men, such as Tur-
cot and Malesherfoes, labored, not without
tne approbation of the better part of the
public, to counteract this pestilence, and
saved the honor of sound reason. Such
a production is Duclos's ConaidiraHons
swr les Moeurs, of which Louis XV him-
self said, ** It is the work of a man of
honor.** Thomas, Marmontel and Laharpe
remonstrated loudly against atheism. Vol-
taire's wit was particularly directed against
the Christian religion, after the duke de
X^hoiseul, in order to have all the voices
against the Jesuits for himself, undertook
the protection of the philosophers an3 of
the author of the Didumnaire PhUoao-
phique (Voltaire). Rousseau roused the
most violent anger of the antiphilosophers,
by his EmUie. Jesuits and Jansenists
united against him, and, notwithstanding
the general admiration which he received,
he was obliged to leave France. Such
was the revolutionary spirit of the age of
Louis XV. The contempt for the court
and royalty produced by his reign, the ex-
haustion of the state caused by his extrav-
agance, the rise of a critical and liberal spi-
rit, and the corruption of state and church,
gave birth to the revolution, and the de-
based state of the public morals, poisoned
by the example of the court, stained it with
hideous excesses.

Louis XVI, who was destined to as-
cend the throne of France on the eve of a
great poHtical convulsion, and to atone
with his life for the faults and follies of liis
predecessors, was the grandson of Louis

XV, and the Beoond son of the dauphin,
by his second wife, Maria JosepWe,
daughter of Frederic Augustus, kuig of
Poland and elector of &Lxony. I^uis
was bom Aug. 2S^ 1754, and, in 1770,
married Marie Antoinette of Austria. The
countess Marsan, governess of the royal
&mily, had a large share in his education,
and even after he became king, Louis lis-
tened to her representations, of which the
abb6 Georeel relates a remarkable in-
stance in bis memoirs. With the beet
intentions, but entirely inexperienced hi
matters of government, this unfortunate
prince ascended the throne in 1774, at the
age of hardly 20 vears. He modestly
declined the title of U Duiri, civen him
by the nation, which he excused from the
tax usual on the occasion. Afler the
death of the Dauphin, in 1765, his grand-
&ther had intentionally kept him from
acquiring the knowledge connected with
his destination ; and the countess Du Barry
sought to revenge herself for the contempt
exhibited towards her by the serious,
strictly moral prince, who dearly loved
his wife, whom she hated, by making him
ridiculous in the eyes of the king. The
ministers, also, secretly spread the opinion
that the prince was severe, and far re-
moved from the indulgent kindness of his
grandfather. He was retiring, silent and
reserved, and did not dare to express his
benevolent feeling His reserve passed
for distrust He felt himself a stranger at
a court where he was surrounded by vice
under a thousand glittering forms. As he
heeded not flattery, he was indifferent to
the courtiers. The duke Choiseul there-
fore said, that, on the most desirable throne
of the world, he was the only king who
not only had no flatterers, but who never
experienced the least justice from the
worid. In his countenance, which was
not destitute of dignity, were delineated
die prominent features of his character —
integiity, indecision and weakness. He
was injured, however, by a certain stiffs
ness of demeanor, repulsive to the commu-
nications of friendship. His manners had
nothing of the grace possessed by almost
all the princes of the blood. In confiden-
tial intercourse alone, he fifecjuently ex-
Eressed himself sensibly and ingeniously,
ut blushed if his observations were re-
peated. TaciUty of comprehenaon, in-
dustry, and an extraordmary memoiy,
made him successful in his studies ; but,
unhappily, they had no immediate rela-
tion to the duties and knowledge of a
prince. He employed himself too assidu-
ously in uninipoitunt particulars. Thus ha

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LOUIS XVI.

printed, when dtuphin, in 1766^ 35 copies
of Maximts moredw ei poUtiqwgy tiria dt
T&4mafut^ iouprvniea poor I^vis-Jht^usUy
DcMpkxiu ViriaiUes, dt rimprimene dt
Monseigneur U Dawphxn. He had liim-
self couected these maxims from F^n^-
lon^s work. He was familiar with geo-

Saphical and chronological details; but
e practical lessons which kings should
derive from history, were unsown to
him, although, while dauphin, he had
read seveFal good historical works. A
translation, by him, of some parts of Gib-
bon's History, appeared under the name
of Le Clerc de Sept Chines, his reader.
Upright, pious and indulgent, he was
philanthropically disposed, bodi towards.
Lis nation and towards individuals. The
virtues of his &ther, the quiet, domestic
life of his mother, had deeply impressed
upon him a moral, reli^ous feeling. But
his example was destined to show how
insufficient, on a throne, are the virtues
of a private man. He chose count Mau-
repas his minister of state, a man of talent
and experience, but of little solidity of
character, and desirous of shining in epi-
grams. In the room of the infamous
abb6 Tenrai, he committed the financial
department to the enlightened, able and
upright Turgot, who resolved to remedy
tlie abuses of the state by tliorough re-
forms on strict philosophical, and, in some
degree, physiocratrcal principles, and
looked upon the pri\dleged orders as the
sources of all evil. But the friends of
ancient abuses, tlie high nobili^, the
court, and the cler^, immediately formed
a combination against him. When the
parliaments were restoi^ed, by the influ-
ence of Maurepas, against the judgment
of Turgot, the contest of opinion, between
old and new views, more than ever em-
barrassed the government. The count of
Vei^ennes was at the head of foreign
afiairs ; count Muy was minister of war ;
and Sartine, of the marine. The new
theories, which Turgot proposed in the
council of state, had, indc^ the approba-
tion of the philosophers: even the tal-
ented men and women, whom madame
Helvetius, madame GeoflHn, mile. Espi-
nasse, the princess of Beauveau, and the
duchess D'Anville, collected around them,
took a lively interest in Turgot's liberal
plans, which were loudly praised by Jo-
seph II and Leopold ; but his opponents
found a support for their reeistance in the
old parliaments. The most oppressive
fendal services, arbitraxy exactions, slave-
ry in the mountains of Jura, and the rack,
were abolished^ and nuiny useful regula-

tions established} but Turcot eould not
overcome the king's dread of an open
struggle with the cfergy, the nobility and
parhament. These bodies united against
the minister, and the people, which was
on his side, could not, without representa-
tives, afford anv assistance against such a
league. The mes of the minister stirred
up the populace, and, on occasion of an
edict declaring the corn -trade free, scenes
occurred resembling those which subse-
(]uently marked the revolution. The
tunid and inexperienced Louis believed
himself hated by the nation, and was in-
dulgent towards the seditious; finally, by
the advice of Turgot and Muy, he acted
with vigor, and the disturbances, called^
in Paris, la guerrt desfcaineg, were quieted
afler the amnesty of May 17, 1775. The
coronation of «the king, 11th June, 1775,
was followed by the appointment of the
virtuous Malesherbes as minister. He
was the friend of Turgot Their united
influence might, perhaps, have done much
towards reforming the old abuses, but,
unhappily, the new minister of war, the
count of St. Germain, was too violent in
his innovations. The corps that' were
disbanded or diminished, and the ofiiended
military nobility, loudly expressed their
dissatisfaction at the system of innovation,
which was disliked, moreover, by the
higher classes. "The state vnll perish,"
was the general cir, and the paniament
refused to register five edicts of^ the kin^.
Louis resolved, indeed, to maintain his
authority, by & lit de justice^ March 12,
1776 ; but the queen, a princess who was
equally superior to her husband in vivacity
of understanding and in wit, and loved
splendor and pleasure, supported the op-
position together with Maurepas, who was
Turgot*s secret enemy. Her the king^
could not resist He hesitated: the deficit
produced by the payment of debts and the
expenses of the coronation, in 1775, in-
spired him with distrust of Turgot's phil-
osophical views. Malesherbes gave in
his resignation. Tunrot was obuged to
follow his example. The privileged party
was victorious, but tlie hatred of the third
estate, and the desire of all enlightened
and well-disposed persons for a thorough
reform, was increased. They did not
v?ish to overthrow the whole system, until
the North American revolution threw a
firebrand into this inflammable mass. The
day on which Louis concluded the treaty
witii the U. States, Feb. 6, 1778, decided
his fate ; for the war to which it gave rise,
from 1778 to 1782^ and which cost Franco,
according to Audouio^ 1,400,000,000 livres,,

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LOUIS XVL

109

ac c u Mo n ied die natioii and aatmy to re-
puUicaii idflasi and produced a curelen
doficit; thia, a meetmg of the statea-gen-
cral; and this, the fidlof the monarch and
moDATchy. Louia himself waa averse to
eogacing in this war; but he was out-
TOted in the council of state, the ministera
hoping- to establish French commerce on
the OTCfthrow of the English. After Tur-
goc*8 removal, the extravagance of the
court increased: while Louis refused him-
aelf any great expenditures he yielded too
easily to the tastes of the queen and the
psinces of the blood. Luxury and splen-
dor made the expenses of the court very
great : they played high ; they built ; they
exhibited races; they gratified every
whim ; and Louis's dissatusfaction, which
oAoi withdrew him from these entertain-
ments, was regarded as the indication of
an ordinary mmd. The regularity of his
manner of life, in which smdy and do-
mestic pleasures were intermingled with
businesB, made no impression on the gay
spendthrifts. Louis did not possess the
art of inspiring the court and princes with
respecL He paid the debts of count
Artois. The queen, also, gave herself up
lo her love of gayety. Taste and love of
the arts, clothed in all the humors of
the fashion, reigned in the festivals of
Versailles and Petit Trianon. Maurepas
^ther did not see whither all this must
lead, or, with his characteristic levity,
yielded to necessity. Pleasure was his
element He remained the directing min-
ister till his death, Nov. 21, 1781, sharing
the confidence of the king with die tal-
ented queen, and with every one who
could deceive the monarch under the ap-
pearance of zeal for the common welfare.
The changes- in the ministry of the A-
ziances, which was committed, in turn, to
Ctugny, Taboureau, Necker, Joly de Fleu-
ly, and D'Ormesson, increased die confu-
sion. The existence of great abuses was
notorious; but the extirpation of their
deep-rooted causes was impossible. The
dimiissal of Necker, who had become an
object of great dislike by his vain compte
rtndu, was considered as a public mis-
fortune by the third estate, whose favor
Necker exerted himself to acquire. Thus,
long before the revolution, a real anarchy
prevailed in 4)ub]ic opinion, which pene-
trated even to the council of state. After
the peace of Versailles, in 1783, which
brought some advantages^ — not, however,
sufficient to repay the expense incurred, —
the fiivolous Calonne, liberal in promises,
few of which were redeemed, was ap-
poimed miniBter of finance. In foreign

afiaiTB, for easmple, in the dkpute about
the Scheldt, Vei^^ennet maintained, though
not without sacnfioe of money, the honor
of the French crewn ; but the commercial
treaty of 1786^ with Endand, was deemed
the greatest error of his administration,
although it was a consequence of the
peace of Versailles. He was also blamed
for having rejected the closer connexion
profifered by Joseph II, and for thus
causing the approxunation of Austria to
Russia. The king himself betrayed weak-
ness in dismiasung the minister before the
accomplishment of his plans, which he
had at first approved. It is said that he
sometimes spent his leisure hours in tho
labors of a blacksmith, and this led him to
the use of strong liquors. Drinking and
workinff at the furnace had heat^ hia
blood, bis understanding vras weakened,
and, subsequently, his natural indolence,
with his increasing corpulence, destroyed
his mental activity, and produced a phleg-
matic indifference. Yet it is known that
Louis took pleasure in literary occupatioiiSy
and engaged with fondness in public en-
terprises. He frapied, with much sagacity,
the plan and instructions for Lap^rouse's
voyage round the world, in 1786. Sev-
eral passages in those instructions express,
in a touching manner, the benevolent
feelings of this artless prince. He often la-
mented Lap^rousc's unhappy fate, with the
words, " I see very well that I am not for-
tunate.'' His kindness of disposition made
him particularly interested for the poorer
clergy. He followed, however, the max-
im of Louis XV, not to give bishoprics,
or rich benefices, to any but nobles. He
drew a line of division, equally unjust,
and far more pernicious, with respect to
the army, in which military rank was con-
fined exclusively to the nobility. The
third estate could not speak out ; so much
the more bitterly and violently did the
populace complain of the court and higher
classes, when, in consequence of the infa-
mous ^fiair of the necklace, the process
against the cardinal prince of Rohan was
commenced in 1785, (See GeorgePs
MimoinSf vol. ii.) The libel of the brand-
ed countess De la Mothe and her hus-
band, disseminated the grossest calumnies
against the innocent queen, which were
but too easily credited by the people. By
this means, the throne was dieu;raced in
public opinion ; and the duke of Orleans,
the implacable enemjr of the queen, waa
accused of using the infamous La Mothe
as the tool of his hatred. In this fermen-
tation of public sentiment, Calonne per^
suaded the king to convene the iiotaUfl8»

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106

LOUIS XVI.

in oidar to find some nworces for die
exhausted treasury. Unhappily, the coui it
of Vergennes died, Feb. 13, 1787, and, on
the 2& Februaiy, the ]ung opened the
aasembly with a speech, which was not
fiivorably received. The deOcit, which
the comptroller-general had stated at
112,000,000, but which was estimated at
more than 140,000,000, rendered Calonne's
plans suq>ected. An opposition was
formed, and Calonne received his dismis-
sal. Parliament refused the imposition
of two new taxes, which would have been
burdensome to the lai|;e landed proprie-
tors, and demanded the convocation of the
estatea The nation heard the proposition
with exultation ; the court trembled.
Loiiia ventured on a lit de justice ; but the
parliament declared it void. According
to Lacretelle, a calembourg was the spark
which kindled the mine that overthrew
the throne, while the mass of the nation,
excited by opinions and passions, exas-
perated by hatred and contempt, reduced
to desperation by the sight of multiplied
wants, and inspired, by the example of
America, with the love of freedom, be-
came incapable of restrafnt or moderation.
The king^ banished the parliament to
Troyes. Thus war was declared between
the throne and nation. The government,
moreover, had acted without dignity in
regard to the contest of the Dutch patriots
with the hereditary stadtholder, in 1787,
and thus entirely lost the respect of the
people. The king himself manifested a
good nature, bordering on weakness, to
his nearest connexions, who, like the duke
De Coigny, consented only with the great-
est reluctance to the restrictions of tlie
royal household. A negotiation was final-
ly commenced with the pariiament ; it
returned ; the measures, on botl) sides,
became more violent ; the rebellion broke
out in Brittany, in June, 1788 ; the nobili-
ty and tlie officers of the regiment Vas-
signy, then, for the first time, dared to
carry arms against the commands of the
king. Even the clergy loudly demanded
the convocation of the estates. (Respect-
ing the pernicious artifices of the royalists,
tn general, much information is contained
in ^esenvaPs and MoUeville's Memoirs.)
The weak prime minister, Brienne (see
Lominie), opposed in all liis projects, re-
signed, and Necker entered the council, in
1788, as minister of finances. Louis con-
vened a second time the notables, to setde
the form of the estates and the manner of
voting. May 5, 1789, the states-general
met Amidst the conflicts of the privi-
egdd orders, and the new opinioiifl^ the

king remained jentle and tiinid, dwe rt od

and alone. ^ wd forbid," said he to the
uobihty, who would not unite with the
third estatOi ''that a single man should
perish for my sake." His sole object,
which he pursued with earnestness of
purpose, was the common weal; but
around him eveiy thinff vacillated ; how
could he show firmness ? The democrats
bated him as a king ; the emigrants and
the aristocrats, who remained in France,
deemed him incapable of governing. He
himself made the greatest sacrifices to the
state, even such as endangered his per-
sonal security, for instance, the disbanding
of his body guard. He coidd not, never-
theless, escape the most envenomed cal-
umny. Among other things^ it was re-
ported that, by a secret act, he had pro-
tested against every thing, which had
been extorted from him ui limitation of
the ancient royal prerogatives. Mean-
while, even amid the gix)6se8t calumnies,
a flattering word was sometimes heard.
When Louis XVI attended the nation-
al assembly . (Feb. 4, 17901 the national
guard of Versailles caused a gold med-
al to be struck, on which was repre-
sented a pelican feeding its young with
its blood. The device was, F/wicaiSf
80U8 cet enibUTne adortz voire roi ! The
12th, 13Ui and 14th of July, 1789; the
night of August 4 ; the horrors of the 5t)i
and 6th of October ; the flight of the lung,
June 21, 1791, intercepted at Varennea,
60 leagues from Paris, when Louis, ironri
his hesitation to use force, prevented the
success of Bouill^'s plan for his escape,
and, at the same time, excited public
opinion against himself by the declaration
which he left behind (see tlie statement
of M. de Vulory, in tlie Mrurvey Novem-
ber, 1815, and die Metnoirs of Bouill^ and
Choiseul) ; the acceptance of the constitu-
tion of Sept 14, 1791, which declared his
E*rson inviolable ; the attack of the popu-
ce of Paris on the royal palace, June 20,*
1792, when Louis, with equal firmness
and dignity, rejected the demands of the
insurgents, and, on tlie 22d, openly de-
clared that violence would never induce
him to consent to what he considered
hurtful to the general welfare ; the catas-
trophe of August 10, to which Louis
submitted, because he had not the courage
to overcome the danger ; his arrest in the
national aasembly, to which he had fled
for refuge ; fijudly, his trial before the con-
vention, where he replied to the charges
with dignity and presence of mind;-—
these were the most important events ia
the hifltoxy of thekuig. (See Ihmu^Jhm

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LOUIS XVL

VS7

1789 fe 1814) He ezhiI»Cedy under these
dxcammBncefL the courage of innocence^
■od a mreug ti i of mind before unknown
in him. As a prisoner of the municipaHtv'
of Paris, in the Temple, he was dented, till
aboitly before his death, pen, ink and
paper. (See the Jcunud de ce qui s*eH
pau4 h la T\iur du TtmpU pendant la
Ca^&mU dit Louii XF7,.by Cl^ry, the
fidlhful servant of the king; and a work
on the same subject by Hue, who followed
Louis to the Temple.) His usual employ-
ment was instructing his son and reading.
He preferred Latin authors to the French.
He read, almost every day, portions of
Tacitus, Livy, Seneca, Horace and Ter-
ence; in his native language, chiefly
travels. On the evening befoiti his death,
he found that he had read 157 volumes,
m ihe five months and seven days of his
imprisoimient. He evinced himself a loving
husband and an affectionate &ther. In his
pHvate capacity, no candid man can vnth-
hold from him his esteem. Jan. 15, 1793,
Louis was declared guilty of a conspiracy
againat the fieedom of the nation, and of
an attack on the general security, by a vote
of e90 out of 719 ; on the 17th January, he
was condemned to death, the law requiring
for condemnation two thirds of the votes,
haying been repealed on the 16tb, during
the truJ, and a bare majority declared su^
ficient Afler repeated countings, it was
found that 366 votes were given for death,
makinff, consequently, a majority of 5 in
727. Jan. 21, 1798, he was ^illotined,
in front of his former palace, m his 99th
year, the appeal to the nation, proposed
by his advocates, Malesherbes, Tronchet
and Des^ze, having been rejected, on the
19th, by 380 vbtes out of 690. He died
with the courage of Christian faith. His
last words, which asserted his innocence
and forgave his judges, were drowned in
the rolling of drums and in the cry Five la
rMbttqut ! — See the Memoirs of the Abb6
Ekigeworth (the priest who prepared him
for death), containing his narrative of the
last hours of Louis XVI (London, 1816).
— ^Even in his youth, Louis manifested a
sensibility unusual in the higher classes.
He needed not the sisht of misery ; when
he heard it spoken of, he shed tears, and
hastened to relieve it Unknown, he alio-
'nated misfortune in the cottage and gar-
ret When he was first saluted at court,
as dauphin, ailer the death of his father,
the duke of Burgundv, he could not
restrain his tears. Still greater was his
ffrief at the death of Louis XV. " O God,"
he cried, ''shall I have the misfortune
to be kmg!" His fovcnite maxim was,

"Kin^ exist only to make nations han
by their government, and virtuous by tneir
example." The esmblishment of the
moni de pidL the coiMe d^tswmple^ the
abolition of feudal services, of torture,
and of slavery m the Jtuts are only some
of his benevolent measures. He caused
the state prisons to be examined, and
liberated the unhappy victims of despot-
ism. Louis declared that he would never
sign, beforehand, a UUrt de cachd. His
great object was the happiness and love
of his people. On his journey to Cher-
bourg, m 1786, where he had updertaken
the construction of the celebrated harbor,
in 1784, to which he had appropriated
37,000,000 livres, he received the most
unequivocal marks of the love of the
French. He wrote, at the time, to the
queen, ''The love of my people has
touched me to the heart ; think you not
that I am the happiest king on earth?"
And in his will of Dec. 25, 1792, he says,
"I forgive, from my whole heart, those
who have conducted towards me as ene-
mies, without my inving ^em the least
cause, and I pray trod to forgive them.
And I exhort my son, if he should ever
have the misfortune to reini, to forset tdl
hatred and all enmity, and especially my
misfortunes and sufferings. I recom-
mend to him always to consider that it is
the duty of man to devote himself entirely
to the happiness of his fellow men ; that
he will promote the happiness of his sub-
jects only when he governs according to
the laws ; and that the kins can make the
laws respqrted, and attain his object, only
when he possesses the necessary authon-
ty." In the same spirit he wrote to Mon-
sieur (Louis XVIII) : " I submit to Provi-
dence and necessity, in laying my inno-
cent head on the scafibld. By my death,
the burden of the royal dignity devolves
upon my son. Be his father, and rule
the state so as to transmit it to him tran-
quil and prosperous. My desire is, that
yoCi assume tne titie of a regent of the
kingdom ; my brother, Charles Louis, will
take that of lieutenant-general. But less
by the force of arms than by the assur-
ance of a wise freedom and good laws,
restore to my son his dominions, usurped
by rebels. Your brother requests it of
you, and your king commands it Given •
in tiie tower of tiie Temple, Jan. 20, 1793."
Louis was buried in the Magdalen churcb*-
yard, Paris, between the graves of those
who were crushed to death, in the crowd,
at the Louvre, on the atmiveraary of his
marriage, in 1774, and the mves of the
Swiss, who iUl on the 10th August, 1792,

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108

LOUIS xvi--];x)uiB xvni-

in hia defence. Deaodoeid's woik on the
histoiT of thie priDce, is of little value.
J. J. Kegnault's SUcU de Louis XVI is not
impartia]. The Fte prwh et politique dt
Lom8 XVI, avee un Precis historique mxr
Marie ArUametU, Mme, ElvuAelk, etc., par
M, A^ contains little that is not to be
found elsewhere. More important are
the abb(& GeorgePs Mhnoires pour aervvr
h riRatoire dea J^^vinements depuis 1760,
Ju^qu'm 1806—1810, published by the
nephew of the author, after his death

Saris, 1817, 2 vols.), and Mad. Campan's
emoirs of the private Lifeof tlie Queen,
with Anecdotes of the Times of Louis

XIV, XV, XVI (Paris, 1822, 3 vols.) ; and
the abb^ de Montgaillard's Histoire de
Drance dhpvM la Fin du Regne de Lams

XV, &c (Paris, 1827, 4 vols., to 179a)
Louis XVII, second son of Louis

XVI and of Marie Antoinette, was bom
at Versailles, March 27, 1785, and, in
1789, after the death of lids elder brother,
received the title of dauphin. He was
four years old, when his mother presented
him to the seditious populace of Paris,
and carried him to the capitiU on the ter-
rible 5th and 6th October. Confined with
his parents and his aunt Elizabeth (q. v.),
in tne Temple, his innbcent gayety and
aftectionate disposition wer6 the chief
solace of the uuhappy prisoners. On the
death of Louis XVI, he i^as proclaimed
king by the royalists, and his uncle (since
Louis XVIII) assumed the title of re-
gent. He was soon after separated from
his mother, sister and aunt, and delivered
(1793} to a shoemaker by thf name of
biinon, a fierce Jacobin, of a gross and
ferocious disposition, who, with his wife,
treated the young Capet widi the most
unfeeling barbarity. Keproaches, blows,
scanty food, tiie damps and filth of a dun-
geon, and a sleep broken by menaces and
abuse, were the lot of the innocent child.
He was even compelled to drink strong
liquors, and join in the obscene songs, and
repeat the atrocious language of ms tor-
mentor. He survived this treatment only
till June 8, 1795, when he died, at tlie age
of 10 years and two months. He was
buried in the common grave in die ceme-
tery of Ste. Marguerite, where his remains
could not be distinguished in 1815. Seve-
ral impostors have appeared, pretending to
be the prince ; among them, Hervagant,
a tailor's son, in Iml (died 1812 in
prison), and Bruneau, a shoemaker, who,
m 1818, was condemned to seven years'
imprisonment. (See Eckard's Mhnoirea
9W Louis XVn.)
Loiiis XVIII (Stanislaus Xavier), le

DMr^ foimeriy oouat of Provence, thiid
son of the dauphin (the son of Louis
XV), bora November 17, 1755, married.
May 14, 1771, the daughter of king Vic-
tor- Amadeus III of Sardinia, Mary Jo-
sephine Louisa, who died in 1810. At
the accession of his brother, Louis XVI,
in 1774, he received the tide of Monsieur,
and, afler his death, became regent of
France. After the death of his nephew,
June 8, 1795, ftt>m which dme he reck-
oned his reign, he took the name of Louis
XVIII, king of France and of Navarre.
But, with the exception of England, the
states of Europe did not acknowledge
him as king of France before the taking
of Paris, March 31, 1814. His brodier,
Monsieur, eount of Artois, as lieutenant-
general, became the head of the provis-
ional government in Paris, April 13. Im-
mediately afler, Louis XVIII began his
reign, by his manifesto from Sl Ouen,
May 2, 1814. During the reign of his
brother, he had taken but litde interest in
the intrigues and the pleasures of the
court, and had principally occupied him-
self with books ; his -wife had followed a
different course. It is said that, in his
youth, Louis had much taste for poetir,
and was the author of several tolerably
good poems. He translated also some
volumes of GiblK>n'8 Histoiy, and applied
himself to the study of the Roman poets
and philosophers. The history of his
emigration, he has related in an agreeable
manner, in a work which appeared at
Paris, in 1823 (Relation d*un Voyage a
Bruxdles el a CoUence, 1791); dedicated,
a AfUoine Louis Ihtnpois (tAvaray, son
libiraieur, Louis Stanislaus Xamer de
France, plHn de Reconnaissance, Salut, In
die first assembly of the notables, in 1787,
he was at the head of the first of the
seven bureaus, and appearefl on the side
of the opposition, against Calonne, con-
iroUur-geniral des Jmanuxs ,* at least, the
latter was most violendy attacked by the
bureau, under thepresidency of the count
of Provence. The people, therefore,
looked upon him with favor, and saluted
him with cries of joy, when he received
fiom the king orders to compel the regis-
tration of some edicts, by the cour des
comptes. His brother, die count of Ar-
tois (Charles X), on the other hand, who
did not belong to the oppoation, was
loaded with reproaches. At the second
assembly of the notables, November 9,
1788, he alone declared himself for the
double representation of the third estate.
During the revolution, it was as imposa-
ble for him as for the king to escape the

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LoinBxvm.

1€9

lofcahimny. After the deBtniction
of the BttBtile, ihe kiDc; accompanied by
bis two bfotfaefB, eoteied the hall of the na-
tioiMl aaeinbly, July 15, and declared
that he counted upon the love and the
fidelicy of hk aubjectB, and had, therefore,
eiven orden to the troops to withdraw
irom Paris and Veraailles. But the peo-
ple of Paris had aheady proscribed the
count of Artois, who, therefore, left the
kingdom, Julv 16^ with his two sons. He
was followed by the princes of Cond^
and Conti, and the ^kes of Bourbon,
Engfaien and Luxembourg. Monsieur
remained. As the people were clamor-
ous for the execution of the marquis of
Favras, who had sought means ft>r the
escape of the king, and had attempted
a counter revolution, in which the count
of Provence had taken part, the latter
went to the A^<e< (fe viUe, in Paris, the day
afier the arrest of the marquis (December
26, 1789), to defend liimself in pereon.
He saKTted that the only connexion he
had ever had with the marquis, was, that
he had bargained with him for 2,000,000
of livres, wherewith to pay his debta
The people believed that this money was
to have been appropriated to the levying
of troops. The marquis was condemned
to death, by the chdtdet^ and hanged Feb-
ruaiy 19. At last, the violence of the
factions in Paris induced the king, June
21, 1791, to attempt to escape to the fron-
tiers of the kingdom. Loum took the
road to Montmmly, and the count of
Provence that of Mon& The fbimer
was arrested at Varennes; the latter reach-
ed Brussels in safety. From Coblentz, he
protested against the decrees of the na-
tional assembly, and the restraints put up-
on the freedom of the kinc. When the
king, October 30 and 31, im, called up-
on him fo return, the princes issued a
declaration, that they regarded the con-
sdmtion as the work of rebels, and that
the king held the throne merely in trust,
and was obliged to leave it to bis posteri^
as he had received it. January 16^ 179^
the legislative assembly, therefore, de-
clared the count of Provence "to have for-
feited his right to the succession. The
two brotheiB of the king, at the head of
6000 cavalry, now joined the Prussian
army. After the death of Louis XVI,
Monsieur, who had previoushr been re-
siding at Hamm, in Westphalia, lived at
Verona, under the name of count of
lille. In 1795, he was here proclaimed,

a the emigrants^ king of France and of
ivaire. The calamities which after-
watds befell him he bore vritb dignity and

V0&. VUK 10

reaolutioD. In the foUowiBg vear, when
the Venetian senate, through fear of Bo-
naparte, obliged him to leave Verona, he
declared himself ready to do so, but re-
quired that the names of six princes of
bis house should first be struck fiom the
golden book of the republic, and that the
armor, which his ancestor, Hemy IV, had
given it, should be restored. He now led
a wandering life, supported by foreign
courts, especially the E^glbh, and by
some friends of the house of Bourbon.
He first went to the amiy of Cond^ on
the Rhine, to serve as a volunteer, but
was afterwards obliged to leave it, and
went to DiUingen, in Suabia. July 19,
1796, at 10 o'clock in the evening, as he
viras standing at a vrindow, with the dukes
of Grammont and Fleury, a musket ball
was fired at him, which grazed his tem-
ple. ** Never mind it,** said he immedi-
ately to the alarmed dukes; *^a blow ou
the head, that does not briug a man down,
is nothing." When the count D'Avaray
exclaimed, <* If the ball bad struck a liue
deeper — " Louis replied, *^ then the king
of France would have been called Chariea
X." From thence he went to Blanken-
btirg, a small town in the Hartz, where ha

. lived under the protection of the duke of
Brunswick, and carried on a correspond-
ence with his fiiends in France, especially
with Pichegni. After the peace of 179/,
he went to Mittau, where he celebrated
the marriage of the duke of Angoulemo
vrith the daughter of Louis XVI. When
Paul I refui^ to permit him to reside
any longer in hie suites, the Prussian ffov-
ernment allowed him to remain in War-
saw. While here, Bonaparte, in 1803,
attempted to idduce him to renounce his
claims to the throne. But he answeretl
to the messenger of the first consul, Feb-
ruary 26, <* I do not confound M* Bona-
parte with his predecessors ; I esteem his
valor and his military talents, and thank
him for all the good he has done mv peo-
ple. But, fiiithnil to the rank in which I
wos born, I shall never give up my rights.
Thouffh in chains, I shaU still esteem my-
self the descendant of St. Louis. As
successor of Francis the First, I will at

Jeast say like him—* We have lost all ex-
cept our honor.' " April 23, the princes
concurred in the answer of the king. In
1806^ Louis, with the consent of the em-*
peror Alexander, returned to Mittau ; but
the peace of Tilsit obliged him to leave
the continent, and he, at last, took refuge
in England, in 1807. His brother, the
count of Artois>-since 1795, Monsieur^
had lived in Great Britain, principally in

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110

LOUIS XVUL

Edinbmisfa, ftom 179& Louis had taken
aerend alepB to procufe the restoratioaof
hia fiunily in France. With it^w view, he
had written to Picfaegm, and given him
iull powera. His letter of May 34, 179(3^
ia a proof of the great confidence wluch he
had in this ** brave, diaintereatedand mod-
eat" general, to whom, aa he then thought,
<< was reaerved the gloiy of restoring the
French monarchy." When the army of
the prince of Cond^, in which, since 1798,
the duke of Bern had commanded a cav-
alry regiment of nobles, first in Russian,
and afterwards in English pay, had been
by circumstances ffradually broken up^
and had obtained from the Russian em-
peror the liberty of residing in Volhynia, the
princes of the llourtran fiunilyceased to take
an active parkin the operations of the war.
Louts XVIIJ, until the conclusion of the
great struggle, remained in England, where
he lived at Haitwell,jD Buckinghanishire,in
a very simple manner, occupying himself
pardy with the Roman classics, especially
Horace, of whom he translated much, and
retained in memory a large part, and part-
ly with political studies. Ttiat he resem-
bled in character his unfortunate brother.
We know from several examples of his
kind feelings. Soon after the disastrous
expedition of the French to Russia, he
wrote to the emperor Alexander a letter, rec-
ommending the French prisoners of war,
as his children, to the magnanimi^ of
that monarch, and he refused to jom in
the rejoicings in England, for he could
not but mourn the death of so many
Frenchmen. When the allies invaded
France, the count of Artois went to Basle,
February 2, 1814 His eldest son, the
duke of*^ Angoul^me, had cone to join
W^ellington. They published a proclama-
tion from Louis XVIII to the French,
dated Hartwell-house, 1st February, 1814,
which induced a paity, first in Bordeaux,
and oflerwards in Paris, to declare for the
Bourbons. The king promised entire
oblivion of the past, the support of the
administrative and judicial authorities, the
preservation of the new code, with the
exception of those laws which interfered
with religious doctrines ; security to die
new proprietors against le^ processes ;
to the army, all its rights, titles and pay ;
to tiiQ senate, the support of its political
rights ; the abolition of the conscription ;
and, for himself and his family, every sac-
rifice which could contribute to the tran-
qullUty of France. Soon after the disso-
lution of the congress of Chatillon, the
count of Artois entered Nancy, March 19.
But the duke of AngouUme fint saw the

lifies of the Boufbona pkntad on Franch
ground at Bofdeaux, March 13. The res-
toration of the Bourbons was a sut^ect
first brought strongly home to the French,
at the time of the entrance of the allies
into Paris, by the declaration of the em-
peror Alexander,March 31, that they would
treat neither with Napoleon nor with
any member of his fiimilv. Talleyrand,
Jaucourt, the duke of Dalberg, Louis and
De Pradt contributed not a littie to this in
an interview vrith Alexander, the king of
Prussia, Schwartzenbeiig, Nesselrode, Poz-
zo di Borgo, and Liechtenstein, March 31,
by the assurance ihat the restoration of
the Bourbons was the wish of a large ma-
jority of the nation. (See De Pradt's
RieU kistoriqut 9ur la ResiawraHon de la
EoyauU en /Vance, 2e 31 Mara, 1814.) The
senate now appointed a provisional gov-
ernment under the presidencv of Talley-
rand, wiiich, April 3, ^ve the authority
of a law to the resolve of the sonate of
April 2, for the deposition of Napoleon,
and published in the Momttwr the project
of the constitution of April 5, according
to which the Bourbons were to be recall-
ed to the throne. A decree of April 4
also intrusted the government to the cqpnt
of Artois, until the moment when Louis,
called to the throne of France, should ac-
cept the constitution drawn up for the
kingdom. Louis XVIII now left Hart-
well, and reached London, April 20,
whence the prince regent (Geone IV) ac-
companied him to Dover. From Dover, the
duke of Clarence (now William IV), Api*il
24, conducted him to Calais. With Louis
landed also the duchess of Angoulenie,
the prince of Cond^ and his son, the
duke of Bourbon. Upon landing, he

Eressed the duchess of Angouldrae to his
eart, and said, *^ I hold again the crown
of mvancestore; if- it were of roses, I
would place it on your head ; as it is of
thorns, it is for me to wear it" The mem-
oiy of his landing upon French ground,
is perpetuated by a Doric column of mar-
ble erected at Calais, and the trace of his
first footstep is carefully preserved in
brass. The king remained some davs in
Compi^gne, where, as at St Ouen, ne re-
ceived deputations from the authorities at
Paris. He was welcomed at St Ouen by
the emperor of Austria, and at Compi^gne
by the emperor of Russia. From St
Ouen, May 2, he issued that remarkable
proclamation, by which he accepted tho
most essential part of the constitution of
the senate (April 5), in 12 articles, but sub-
mitted the whole, as being too hastily
drawn up, to the revison of a comnutiee

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LOUIS XYHL

111

of the tenate and legialadTe body. May
8k Louifl made his entrance into Paha.
The ^opea of all now rested upon him.
In compliance with the will of his unhap-
py brother, who had conunanded forgive-
neea, he solemnly declared ** that all ex-
aminations into opinions and votes, until
the time of the restoration, are forbidden.
The same oblivion is made the duty of
the courts of justice and of the citizens."
He formed liis ministry of members of
the former provisional government, and
of zealous royalists, such as the chancellor
D'Ambray. One of his first ordinances
related to the continuance of the op-
pressive taxes (droits r^unu), which the
state of the kingdom rendered necessarv.
It had been promised that they should
be abolished, but it was only possible to
ameliorate the mode of their collection.
He afterwards concluded peace with Aus-
tria, Russia, England, Prussia, Spain, Por-
tugal and Sweden, at Paris, May 30, 1814,
and caused a constitution to be drawn up.
Although his ministry too lltde under-
stood the spirit of public opinion, yet, by
prudence and firamess, it was able to re-
strain die disaffected. It mclined to the
old prejudices, and fulfilled none of the
just expectations of the nation, with re-
gard to the fineedom of die press, and the
prevalence of liberal ideas. The old roy-
alists, as well as the partisans of the empire,
had been deceived in the dreams of their
pride and Uieir covetousness. The former
thirsted for revenge, and aspired to regain
their lost advantages. The latter, in-
cluding the soldiers of Napoleon, 100,000
of whom had returned from captivity,
were indignant at the disgrace of the
French arms. After the procluraation of
peace, Louis caused Lis chancellor, D'Am-
bray, in his presence, to lay before the leg-
islative body and the senators the consti-
tution of the kingdom (la charie conatiiU'
tionneUe)y June 4, it having been already
approved by nine senators and nine depu-
ties^ after it had been drawn up by the
three ministers D'Ambray, Montesquieu
and Ferrand. It was unanimously ac-
cepted as the will of the king, and re-
corded. (See fVcmce, since 1814.) The
chamber of deputies, which was estab-
lished by this instrument, requested the
king to take the surname of ** the desired,"
JjouU It DMrL When the chamber was
occupied with fixing the civil list, Louis
answered the deputies, "' Let them attend
ID the stata, and neglect me." Tlie king
app<nnted from the new and old nobility,
from the senators and manhak, 151 mem-
Imib of the chamber of peen ; 53 of the

former senatorB, among whom wero 23
forei^en^ were not appointed peers by
the kmg ; others were excluded, as Cau-
laincourt, Feach, Fouch^, Gr6goire, Ro-
derer, Si^yea. They retained, however,
their property, and the widows of those
who had died received pensiona. It was
not to be expected, that men who had
voted for the death of Louis XVI could
now be peers of France. The king save
his fill! confidence to his minister, 51. de
Blacas, and the chancellor D'Ambray.
The latter and the ^vet secretaries of state,
(the minister of foreign afibira — ^Talley-
rand—of the interior, of war, of the
finances, of the navy), and the directoia-
general of die police and the post-office,
together with the state counsellors and the
maUres des requites, formed the king's
council, to which were admitted distin-
guished men of the old and new nobility,
and the former state officers, togeUier with
some whose only claim jvas, that they had
shared the sufterines of Louis. The new
relations with foreign powers were ref-
lated by Talleyrand with his usual ability,
and not without dignity and a proiier re-
gard to the pride of the nation, ilis di-
plomacy now professed great magnanimi-
ty and respect for the rights of the peo-
ple. On tne other hand, the minister of
the interior, abb^ Montesquieu, did not
succeed in gaining the public opinion in
fiivor of the Bourbons. Still less did the
minister of war, general count Dupont,
succeed in gaining the favor of the armv,
which hated him. His successor, Soult,
contributed much, by his severe meas-
ures, to excite the anger of the army
against the kins. The >per5onal mild-
ness of Louis XVIII, and his love of
justice, were often betrayed, in spite of
the judgment which he frequendy show-
ed, into imprudent and inconsistent meas-
ures, lie was accused of surrounding
himself with the leaders of the Chouans,
and with emigrants, and admitting them,
in preference to all others, into the
royal guard. The army was exasperated
by the diminution of the pensions of the
members of the leeion of honor, and the
severity which had placed so many offi-
cere upon half pay. The chamber of
peers, composed mostly of tlie old nobili-
ty, and attached to their old prejudices,
often thwarted the better views of the
chamber of deputies. The chancellor
D'Ambray showed great weakness in
fovoring the privileged cla8Be&^ and was
careless in the duties of his office. The
cotmt Blacas, little ac<}uainted with FrBnc«i|
waa bated by all pmtiea. The cenanrthip

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119

LOUIS xvm.

of the minifllen limited the fieedom of
the praes, while fibeb were promulgated
agamst men who had diepleaeed the goT-
. emment Merely in consequence of a
political reaction, thirty honorable names
were struck from the list of members
of the national institute. Hired or &nat-
ical writers maintained that the sale of
the national domains was invalid, and
that the crimes of the revolution were
not to be pardoned. The restoration of
tithes and the old privileges Was openly
talked of in the country. The ordinance
of Blacas with regard to the Sunday po-
lice excited so much ill feeling in Paris,
that it was found necessary to repeal it
The prohibition of masked balls during
Lent, caused still greater dissatisfiiction ;
and the obstinacy of the curate of St.
Roch, who opposed the burial of a cele-
brated actress in consecrated ground, ex-
asperated the people against the priests.
In short, eveiy tiling appeared to confirm
the warning of Lally-Tollendal :— *< But
one more act of madness was wanting to
France ; and that we now have ; we see
the throne of the king shaken by his
friends.*' Against the pure, or, as they
were afterwards called, yUra royalists,
were united the republicans and the mili-
tary and constitutional royalists. In the
midst of all this Napoleon returned from
Elba. To understand the events of
March, 1815, it is necessary to call to
mind what the majority of the nation ex-

BM^ted of Louis XVIII. (See Comte and
unoyer's Censeur ou Examen des AcUa et
de$ Ouorages qui tendent h cUtruire ou h am-
sdider la Corutihdion de r':^Uat ; and the
JBromen rmndt du GouvememerU des Bour--
hona en Ircmee, dtpuis U Mois d^AvrU^
1Q14, jusqu'au Mais de Mars, 1815.) The
nadon wished, 1. to have its political lib-
erties secured, or the right or being rep-
resented by depudes, chosen by the peo-
ple ; 2. the personal liberties of the indi-
viduals, or security from prosecutions for
imaginary crimes, or contrary to the legal
forms ; SL the equality of citizens in the
eve of the law, and the rights of all to
obtain any civU and military dignitv, by
merit and talents ; 4. the abolition of feu-
dal services; 5. the risht, in criminal ac-
cusations, to be judged b)r a jury ; 6. the
independence of the judiciary upon every
othw power in the state ; 7. the right of
levying taxes by their representatives, and
on all m proportion to their property ; 8.
the right of every individual to exercise
any means of ([tuning a living which did
not interfere with the rights of otiier citi-
aseog ; 9. the right of every one to com-

municate his thoaglits to his feOow citi-
zens^ by puUic writings, being responsible
only to the law; and, 10. the right of
every one to perform divine worSiip in
his own way, without molestation. But
instead of satisfying the demands of the
nation, the Bourbons, it was maintained
by the parties above meuticHied, had sought
to destroy public opinion, and had thus
lost the attachment of the French. The
following grievances were particularly
complained of: 1. the abolition of the na-
tional colors ; 2. the surrender of all the
fortresses beyond the ancient frontiers of
France, to the allies, by Monsieur, as lieu-
tenant-general, April 23, 1814 (with these
fortresses he had given up 13,000 cannons,
and had thus caused the loss of Belgium,
and of the left bank of the Rhine) ; 3. the
royal declaration, whereby the new con-
stitution had been imposed upon the na-
tion by virtue of the royal pleasure and
prerogative, while it ought to have been
proposed to it for acceptance (from the
form used for this purpose, it would fol-
low, that eveiy successor of the king
might abrogate or alter the charter at wiU) ;

4. the stain upon tiie national honor, from
the king's declaration that he hwed his
crown to the prince regent of England ;

5. the exclusion of many respectable
members of the senate from the chamber
of peers, and the filling their places by
others, who, for 20 years, had borne arms
against France ; 6. the neglect to abolish
the droit rSunis, and other vexatious taxes ;
7. die restrictions ou the freedom of the
press ; 8. the persecutions of the holders ^
of the national domains, and the expres-
sions of die minister, count Fernina, on
this subject iu the chamber of deputies ;
9. the libels against those who had taken
part in the revolution, although these
were forbidden by the constitution; 10.
the exclusive appointment of the old no-
bility to embassies; 11. arbitrarv taxes,
imposed without die consent of the legis-
lature; 12. the great influence of priests,
&c. It ought to be observed, however,
on the other hand, that Louis XVIIl
had provided for the personal security
of the subiect by the independence of
the tribunals, and the responsibihty of
the ministers ; though the law on the lat-
ter point had not yet gone into effect
when the revolution of March began.
But the ministers should have forgotten
their old ideas, and ruled in a popular
manner. Henry IV had, when he as-
cended the throne, changed his religion,
and thus obtained the love of his people.
Napoleon at Elba was fully infomwd ik

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LOUI8 xvm.

119

the tnmUea in France, and the diyiaona
at the congreas. Hiis appearance in
France, March 1, 1815, was like a thun-
der-bolt to the army and the nation. The
state of popular feeling was entirely un-
known to Louis. Those who surrounded
him, as ignorant as himself^ still deceived
him with accounts of the devotion of the
army, and of desertion among the soldiers
of Napoleon. The defection of Lab^do-
y^re and Ney finally opened the eyes of
the king, but it was too late. He was
obliged to flee from Paris, in the night of
March 20, after having dissolved the two
chambers on the 19th. On the evening
of March 22, he reached Lille, whence he
issued several decrees, forbidding all levies
and contributions for Napoleon, and dis-
banding the rebellious army. Twenty-
four hours ailer, he was obliged to leave
Lille, to avoid fiUling into the hands of his
enemies, and went by Ostend to Ghent
The duke and duchess of Orleans, the old
prince of Cond^, the count of Artois, and
the duke of Berry, hastily left Paris. The
duke of Bourbon remained in Vendue,
and the duke and duchess of An^oul^me
in the south of France. Their object was
to awaken a popular sympathy in favor
of the king. An army was, indeed,
formed in vendue, and the duke of An-
goul^e levied troops, but, deserted by a
part of them, and surrounded by the gen-
erals of Napoleon, he was obliged to con-
clude the capitulation at Pont d'Esprit,
April 8, in consequence of which he em-
barked, April 15, at Cette for Barcelona.
The duchess of Angoul^me, whose for-
timde hod been the subject of admuntion,
showed, at Bordeaux, the courase of a
heroine. The city and the people were
devoted to her, but the troops favored
the advance of general Clauzel, and the
duchess ^vas obliged to embark for Eng-
land, April 2. Besides the ministers and
several officers, njaishal Berthier, Vic-
tor, Mannont, and the duke of Feltre,
followed tlie king. The number of bis
followers amounted at last to a thousand.
While in Ghent, he issued an official pa-
per, the Journal Unwersd, which con-
tained several pieces by Chateaubriand.
In the meanwhile, Talleyrand, at Vienna,
was actively engaged in the cause of the
kinff, and Louis was included in the league
of March 25^ against Napoleon. When
the allies invaded France, Louis XVIII
returned, and went fo Cambray. He
here proclaimed a general amnesty, with
the exception of traitors, and promised to
avoid all the faults he had committed in
1814| from ignoiance of the new mnl of
10* .^

the nation, and to diflmias Blacas. In the
meanwhile, the chambers, convoked by
Napoleon, had appointed an executive
commission under tne presidency of Fou-
ch^, and deputies who were to negotiate
with the allies upon the basis of their inde-
pendent right to choose a form of govern-
ment ; but the aUies would not consent to
this. BKicher and Wellington besieged
Paris, and Fouch^, who had already in-
duced Napoleon to leave France, put a
stop to the sheddinff of blood, by the
capitulation of Paris, July 3. Louis was
thus again restored to tiie throne, of
France. July 7, the Prussians and Eng-
lish entered Paris, and on the afternoon of
the 9th, Louis followed, under the protec-
tion of Welluigton. The king immedi-
ately appointed his new ministry, at the
head or which wab Talleyrand, and in
which Fouch^ was minister of police.
The most declared partisans of Napo-
leon now lost their places. July 13, the
former chamber of aeputies was dissolv-
ed, and a new one summoned. (See
Chambre IntnnwabU,) Among the most
decided measures oy which the king
sought to support his throne, was the or
dinance of July 16, disbanding the army,
according to the wishes of his allies;
which Auicdonald efiTected with great ])ru-
dence. To form a new army, 4000 ofii-
cers were appointed, in part oV those who
had escaped the conscription ; and accord-
inff to the edict of May 20, 1818, of the
half-pay officers of the army of 1815, only
those were appointed who had served for
15 years or more, and, consequently alt
French soldiers, since 1803, were made
incapable of service. Yet the constitution
of 1814 had secured to all officers the
preservation of their rank and their pen-
sions. An ordinance of July 24, 1815»
designated the rebels who were excluded
from the amnesty. According to this, 19
generals and officers, Ney, Lab&Ioy^re, the
brothera Lallemand, Erlon, Lefevre, Des-
nouettes, Ameilh, Drouot, Brayer, Gllly»
Mouton, Duvemet, Grouchy, Clauzel, La-
borde, Debelle, Bertrand,Cambronne, La«
valette and Savary, were to be arrested and
brought before a court-martial. Thirty-
eight others were exiled, according to a
resolution of the chambers, incruding'
Souh, Cam.ot, Excelmans, Bassano, Van-
damme, Lamarque, Lobau, Bair^re, Ar-
righi, Keffnault de St Jean d'Angely,
Real, Menin de Douay, Hulin, the poet
Amauld, colonel Bory de St. Vincenti^
Mellinet and others. Twenty-nine were
degraded from the peerage, fia Lefebvrs,
SiKhfiti Augereau, Mortier, Gadore^ Pia

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114

LOUIS XVUL

by proYing that tbej had not received
m>m Napoleon a seat in the new cham-
ben. Of the rebek, towards whom many
circtunfltancea recommended mercy, Li^
b^oy^re was shot Auguat 19 ; Ney, De-
cember 7, 1815; and Mouton Duvernet,
July 26, 181& LAvdette (q. y.) escaped
from prison, December 21, 1815; Drouot
and Cambronne were releaaed ; the great-
er number took refuge in flight; some,
like Debelle, were pardoned; others, as
Demean the son, Laurence, Gamon, Al-
quier, Duboisduhai and Grandpr^ receiv-
ed, in 1818, permismon to return. In the
meanwhile, die royalists, who called them-
selves recHUgnes, obtained greater influ-
ence. The princes were dissatisfied with
Fouch^'s appointment to the ministry.
At the sarae*time, he made himself ob-
noxious to the allies by his reports to the
kinff on the new state of France. TaUey-
rand and Fouch^, though devoted to the
cause of the lung, were looked upon by
the royalists as men who ought not to he
admitted to authority in the new system
of things. Thus a change in the ministry
took place, September 25, 1815. Fouch6
was dismissed, ' and, in order to please
Russia, the duke of Richelieu was made
minister of foreign aflSiirs in his place.
Decazes became minister of police, Cor-
vetto, of the finances, and Clarke, duke of
Feltre, minister of war, &c. The ultra
royalists now raised their heads. The
state of things before 1789, aloae appear-
ed legitimate in their eyes. The election
of the deputies was made accordinglv,
and many of tliose elected were but 25
years old, though 40 was the legal age.
A change of the constitution was opeuly
talked of. On the other hand, the paitisans
of the fallen government, excited by the
ultras, began to form conspiracies ; but for
their speedy punishment prevotal courts
were introduced, which, however, were
abolished in 1818. Decazes discovered
several conspiracies among which, how-
ever, that under Didier alone broke out,
in May, 1816, in the vicinity of Grenoble.
The numerous arrests attracted attention,
and several foreigners, as the English who
had favored Lavalette's escape, loi-d Kin-
naird (in his letter to lord Liverpool), and
the Polish count Sierakowski, complained
of the arbitraiy conduct of the French
police. It excited great dissatisfaction
that the duke of Richelieu, as minister, in
the trial of Ney, had availed himself of the
extreme ri^r of the law in procuring his
condemnation. Among the princes, the
duke of Orleans (see Lmda-PkUip) alone

used a miUflr tone. Whenanaddfevof
thanks to the king, written by Chateau-
briand, was read in the house of peen^ the
duke proposed to change the passage in
which traitors were given up to the ju»-
tice of the king, so as to recommend the
persons there named to the mercy of the
lung. The censors of the press would
not allow his 8p>eech to be printed ; and
the duke, for whom a party was already
forming, though without his own consent,
soon arter (October, 1815) went to Eng-
land. Richelieu now concluded with the
allied powers the treaty of November 20,
1815 (see fVcmce), which embarrassed the
finances of the longdom, since, fi!om De-
cember 1, 1815, France was bound to pay
140,000,000 yeariy, towaid 700,000,000,
which had been the expenses of the war,
with 130,000,000 for die support of the
army of occupation. A violent dispute
soon afler arose in the chambers on the
subject of the law of amnesty. The ultra
royalists, January 6, 1816, proposed some
changes, which extended and rendered
more severe the first propositions of the
king. All the relations of Napoleon were,
under pain of death, banished fioni
France ; they lost the property conferred
upon them, and were obliged to sell what
they had bought Those, also, who had
voted for the death of the king (rigicidks),
and those who, in 1815, had received
offices or honors fi*om the usurper^ or
had acknowledged the Additional Act to
the constitution, were banished fit)m the
kingdom, and forfeited all their civil riffhts,
and the tides, estates and pensions, which
had been conferred on them. Of 366
who had voted for the king's death, 163,
who were stiil living, were banished from
France. Three only— Tallien, Milhaud
and Richard — ^were allowed to remain. If
violent measures were taken against the
real or suspected anti-Bourbonists (among
others a captain was imprisoned on suspi-
cion, for having named his horse Cossadc)^
the public authorities di<l but little to re-
strain the commotions at Nismes, and the
deputment of Gard, where political and
religious fanaticism had caused the. perse-
cution and murder of the Protestants, in
1815 and 1816. One voice only was
heard in the chamber, in the cause of the
Protestants— that of the noble D'Argen-
son ; but Tr^staillons, who was universally
known to be a murderer, remained un-
punished. (He died in 1827.) The vic-
tory in the chambers gradually inclined to
the royalists, who were called exagireSf or
tvkiU Jacobins.. The king, therefore, closed
the aession, April 29, 1816, after a law.

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LOUIS xvm.

Its

proliSNliii^ difoiVMiy had boon passed.
Lam^ the former preadent of the cham-
ber of deputiea, was ajMMHDted minister of
the interior, and, with Corvetto, Richelieu
and DecazeSy fbiroed, in the ministry, the
constitutional majority'; the minister of
the marine, Dabouchage, appeared to join
them, so that the chancellor, D'Ambray,
and the minister of war, Feltie, alone pos-
sessed the confidence of the ultras. (In
September, 1817, marahal Sl Cyr took
the place of the latter; count Mol^a peer
of IVance, the place of Dubouchage ; and,
somewhat later, Roy, the place of Corvet-
to.) In the midst of continual seditions
in France, the majority of the ministers,
supported by the influence of the Russian
ambassador, Pozzo di Borgo, and of Wel-
Jington, succeeded in obtaining from the
Icii^ the ordinance of September .5, 1816,
by which he dissolved the chamber of
deputies, and ordered that the new mem-
ben should all be of the lawful age of 40.
At the same time, he declared that the
constitution should be subjected to no
alteration. This victoiy of the consti-
tutional party gave a checJc, for a time, to
the ultn royalnts, to whom Louis XVIII
himself did not appear to be enough of a
royalist, and silenced, for some time, their
Fwe le roi^quand mhn^ ! The organ of
that party, Chateaubriand, ifi his woric Dt
la MofuarMe Bdon la CharUy reproached
the government with having taken away
pefsonal liberty and the Ubeity of the
pieas. He was even bold enough to
maintain, that that ordinance was contraiy
to the wishes of the king. The elections
for the new chambers were such that the
constitutionalists could raise their voices.
They spoke in vain, though with great
talent and boldness, for the ueedom of the
press and a juiy. The law of censorship
of November 9 remained in force. The
Slate of the people, in the general deamess
of all articles, and the weight of the taxes,
needed every possible alleviation, and the
king's spirit of order contributed greatly
to ttiiB. From 1814 to 1816, the arrears
anoounted to more than 83,000,000, which
had increased the budget of expenses
for 1817 to 1,068,000,294 fhmcs, being
6d9fi00 more than m 1816 ; while the reve-
nue for 1817 could not be estimated high-
er than 774,000,000, so that a deficit of
314^000,000 was to be covered. Recourse
WO0 had to loans; the same thing took place
in 1818. The diminution of the standing
anny, and its entire dissolution in conse-
onence of the eongress of Aix, were, there-
ma. foituoate events. Among the events
of tii« ariminisiwtkm of Louis XYIII» it

however, be vemarited, that the na*
tional institute was restored in 1816, with
its fonnerfouracademiee,ahhough the best '
institutions, as that of the decennial prizes^
were not retained. The attempt to bring
Hayti to submission, bv the offer of fa-
vorable conditions, utterly foiled, and the
concordate was not effected with the
pope. Louis was himself inclined to
use mild measures. On the day of St
Louis, therefore, August 2S, 1818, when
the bronze statue of Henry IV was erect-
ed in Paris, which had been paid for by
private subscription, several persons ar-
rested for political offences were pardon-
ed. He allowed, also, some of the exiles
who had voted for the death of the king,
as Cambac^r^ Rabaud, and 15 members
of the convention, to return. As, howev-
er, he gave way to the inclinations of the
emigrant party, on several occasions, the
nation conceived suspicions that the Bour-
bons could not sincerely forgive. The
king neglected to give full security in their

Property to the possessors of the national
omains, by a particular edict At the
same time, the constitutional party was
strengthened by the passage of laws which
contradicted the articles of the charter.
The liberals, therefore, obtained, for a
time, the superiority, and Louis named,
December 29, 1818, bis diird, and, No-
^rember 19, 1819, his fourth ministry, un-
der Decazes. (See Drancej since 1814.)
From this time, the goveniment of Louis
had the support of public opinion. But,
after the assassinauon of the duke of
Beny, February 14, 1820, the party of
the ultras again raised its head. Riche-
lieu took me place of Decazes; the
law of election was altered ; the censor^
ship of newspapers was introduced, per-
sonal freedom limited, &c. All this gave
more power and influence to the extreme
royalists. The party of anti-Bourbonists,
which thought mat the welfare of France
required a dynasty not belonging imme-
diately to the Bourbon line, remamed still
a large one, while the party o^ the princes,
which showed a very great and veiy
natural predilection for Louis; was sup-
ported by the ultras, who sought to form,
in all Europe, a general coalition a^jainst
liberal principles. The white consmracjf,
as it was called, detected in 1818, snowed
that it was the object of the ultra royalists
to destroy the constitution.* They had
given to the ambassadora of foreign pow-
ers a paper— written, it is said, by the
baron de Vitiollea-JVUe itaite expoioni
UsprtiextetdkMfUladenuhtconspinh
(ioiii to attract their atteotion to the dan-

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116

LOUIS XVOI—LOUIS-PHILIP I.

KB which menaced the reign of the
urbone, that their troops might not be
wi^drawn from France, but a change
made in the French ministry. This note,
the giving of which was, according to the
French laws, treasonable, caused so much
dissatisfaction, that Chateaubriand, in his
Remarquta 8ur Us Affairs du Moment, de-
niefi having had any thing to do with it
Tliat party had in view to form a new
ministry, of which Vill^le, ChlLteaubriand,
Donadieu, and others, were to be mem-
bers. All examination into this business
was, however, prevented, and the ffenerals
Canuel, Chapdelaine, with H. H. Joannis,
Romilly, De Sorgis, &C., who had been
already arrested as accomplices, were re-
leased August 19, 1818, nx>m the secret
prison (secrd). By the ordinance, July
S4, however, the baron Vitrolles was
struck off the list of ministers of state and
members of the privy council of the
king. But Louis allowed what was
called the theocratic party, in union with
the friends to old privileges, to gain, con-
tinually, more innuence in the internal
management of the kingdom. This was
shown by the prosecutions against the
vrriters, who complained of abuses in
the public administration, and, especially,
of the measures of the secret police, by
which those who were suspected of being
political enemies were enticed to mani-
fest their feelings by deeds. An instance
of this kind was the punishment of the
deputy Kochlin. By the chance in the
law of elections, in June, 1820, the system
of the strict royalists was triumphant;
Vill^le (q. V.) was placed at the head of
the ministry. But the strength of the
king, who had, for several years, been un-
able to walk, now entirely failed him.
His last triumph was the campaign in
Spain in 1823. In August, 1824, it be-
came evident that his disease was mortal.
Until the day of his death, September 16,
1824, he gave proo& of finnness and
resignation. ** Un roi doit mourir,^ said
he, quaintly, ^mais ne doit jamais itre
matade/* Louis XVIII possessed much
intellectual cultivation and sagacity, but,
enfeebled by disease, he had not suffi-
cient strength of character to restrain
the ultras, nor did he understand new
France. — He had one remarkable max-
im — Uexactitude est lapoUtesse des rois.

Louis III (called, in German histoiy,
the Child), bom in 893, succeeded his
father, the emperor Amulph, when six
yean old. In his minori^, archbishop
Hatto, of Mentz, administered the cov-
emnent, aod canied the uugiaich about

with him, wherever the affidn of the (
pire required the presence of the regent,
buring the course of his reign, Germany
was desolated by the Hungarians, and
torn asunder bv civil discord. He assum-
ed the imperial tide in 908, but was never
crowned. He died in 911 or 912, and
with him ended the royal line of Charle-
magne.

Louis IV, the Bavarian, emperor of
Germany,, son of Louis the Severe, duke
of Bavaria, was bom in 1286. On the
death of Henry VII (q. yX five electors
were in favor of Louis, while the others
supported Frederic, duke of Austria. Hie
two rivals being both crowned, a war en-
sued, and Frederic was made prisoner,
in the battie of Miihldorf; in 1322. (See
Bavaria; and Germamf, History of) In
1815, Louis had expelled his brother, Ro-
dolpb, who opposed his election, from the
Palatinate, but, after the death of the lat-
ter, had formed a convention with his
sons, by virtue of which their patrimony
was restored to them, and the electoral
dignity was to belong altemately to Bava-
ria and the Palatinate. The vacant Mark
of Brandenburg he conferred, in 13^ on
his eldest son. In his disputes with pope
John XXII, against whom he was joined
by the Visconti partv in Italy, he main-
tained the di^ty of the German crown,
and set up the antipope Nicholas V. In
1346, Clement VI excommunicated him,
and succeeded in causing five electors to
set Charles of Luxembourg, king of Bo-
hemia, on the imperial throne. In the
midst of this dispute, Louis died (1347).
(See Mannert's Louis IF, or the Bavarian^
in German, 1812.)

Louis Bonaparte. (See.^^ipen(/tr,end
of this volume.)

Louis -Philip I, elected, Aug. 7, 1830,
king of the French,known previously under
the tide of the duke of Oneans, eldest son
of Louis-Philip, duke of Orleans (t%d^\
and of Marie- Adelaide de Bourbon Pen-
thi^vre, grand-daughter of a natural son
of Louis Al V by madarae Montespan, was
born at Paris, Oct. 6, 177a The line of ,
Bourbon-Orleans (see Bovrfton) was found-
ed by Philip, brotiier of Louis XIV, who
conferred on him the duchy of Origans.
Philip II, his son, was the well known re-
gent of France, whose grandson was Louis-
rhilip, father of the subject of this article.
(See OrUans.) The wife of king Louis-
Philip is Maiy- Amelia, daughter of Fer-
dinand IV, king of the Two Sicilies. (The
royal fiunily is ^ven in the article'/Vonee^
division StaMics.) Louis bore, at first,
the title of (Me y VMs^ audi whoa Im

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LOUfS-FHILIPL

117

duke of OrieaiM, tiwt of
dbifte of Ckarin$. At tbe ace of Ave
yetm, he wee placed under the care of
the chevalier 1>b Boonard ; but, m 1782,
die direction of his education was intrust-
ed to the countess De Genlis. In 1791, a
decree of the constituent assembly having
retpured the proprietary colonels to ouit
the military career, or to take the enect-
ive command of their regiments, the
duke of Chartres, who was ambitious of
the honor of serving his country, placed
himself at the head of the 14th regiment
of dragoons, which bore his name, and
was then in ffarrison at Venddme. Here
he succeeded in saving, b^ his courage
and presence of mind,a nonjuring clergy-
man, on the point of being massacred by
the populace, which accui^ him of hav-
ing treated with contempt a procession
conducted by a constitutional ciereyman.
He shortly after gave a new proof of his
humanity by saving an engineer from
drowning. The ci^ of Vend5me decreed
him, on account of these honorable actions,
a dvic crown. In August, 1791, he quit-
ted Venddme, with his regiment, to go to
Valenciennes, where he passed the win-
ter, fulfilling the duties of the oldest colo-
nel of the parrison. In 1792, when
Louis XVI had declared war against
Austria, the duke of Chartres made
his first campaign. In 1792, Dumouriez
succeeded lAfiiyette in the command of
his division of the army. Sept 11, 1792,
the duke of Chartres was appointed lieu-
tenant-general, and was called to take the
conunand of Strasburg. ** I am too
young," said he, ''to shut myself up in a
town, and prefer to remiun active in the
armv." He did not go to Strasburg, and
Kellermann, whose army was reinforced
by a division of the army of the Rhine,
confided to him the command of his sec-
ond line, composed of 12 battalions of
infimtry and 6 squadh>n8 of cavalry. At
the head of this second line, he fousbt at
Vahny, SepL 20, 1792, and displayed mat
bravery and judgment The 26th of the
same month, the executive council ap-
pointed the duke of Chartres to the second
command in the new-levied troops, who
were to be united by Labourdonnaye at
Dmiay. But the duke declined this ap-
pointment, and went to Paris to ask per-
miBBion to remain in the line, and in Kel-
]ennann*8 armv ; but, as he had 6een al-
ready superseded there, it was proposed
to him to pass into that of general Dumou-
riez, who was (^ing to Flanders, to at-
tempt the invasion of Belsium, and he
neoqpled the offer. Nor. S, the French,

under Domouries, gained the eelehntted
batde o€ Jemappes jq. r.), in which the
duke of Chartree dirtinguiahed hunseK
The duke was at Touniay when the con-
yention passed a decree of banishment
against all the members of the Bourbon
family who were in France. He was de-
sirous that his fiither, and all the fiimily,
should join him in emijmtinff to the U.
States ; hut his distance from Paris delay-
ed the arran^ments, and the decree .was .
revoked before they were finished. In
February, 1793, the duke was recalled to
the army, and employed at the siege of
Maestricht, under the orders of general
Miranda. Shortly after this, the duke,
who had manifested, with more fiwikness
than prudence, his honor at the revolu-
tionary excesses in France, saw a decree
of arrest levelled af^ainst himself. He
then resolved to quit the army and his
country. He went to Mons, where he
was kindly received by the archduke
Charles, who offered him the commission
of heutenant-generol in the Austrian ormy.
This, however, he declined, and obtained
passports for Switzerland. He went fiom
Mons to Switzerland, in April, 1793^ vrith
Csesar Ducrest, his aid, havmg but a small
supply of mone^ ; crossed, as a fugitive,
the same countries through which he had
passed, a short time before, as a conqueror
with the French army, and learned, fi^m
a newspaper, the arrest of all his family.
He amved at Basle in September, and
there waited for lus sister, who had just
arrived at Schaffhausen, vrith madame de
Genlis and the count Montjoye. In order
to join them, he quitted Basle, and at-
tempted, in vain, to fix himself at Zurich
or Zug. He was every where repulsc>d,
and received notice that no part or Swit-
zerland vfras safe for him. In this sad sit-
uation, he was anxious to find a retreat for
his sister; and count Montjove applied to
general Montesquieu, who, having fallen
under the accusation of the constitutional
assembly, while he commanded tiie army
of the Alps, had token refuge in Switzei^
land, and lived in retirement at Breingor-
ten, under the name of chevalier Rionel.
This genUeman took an interest in their
situation, and succeeded, not vrithout difil-
culty, in getting admission for mile d'Qr-
leans, and even madame de Genlis, into a
convent in Bremffarten. To the duke of
Chartres he could only say, that tiiere was
nothing for him to do but to wander in
the mountains, taking care to stay but a
short time in any one place, until ciicum*
stances should become more fiiyorable.
The duke of Chartres^ satiBfied with haying

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118

LOUIS PHIUP L

placed fak uflter in security, fbUowed tbis
judicious ad?ice. Alone and on foo^
almoflt without money, he began his
travels in the interior of Switzeriand and
the Alps. Every where he was seen
contenoing with courage against fatigue
and poverty. But his resources were
entirely exhausted, and, being recalled to
Bremgarten by a letter from M. Montes-
quiou, he obtained, through the interfer-
ence of that gentleman, Uie situation of
prof^sor at the college of Reichenau.
He was examined by me officers of this
institution under a feigned name, and
unanimously admitted. Here he taught
geography, history, the French and Eng-
lish languages, and mathematics, for eight
months, without having been discovered.
The simplicity of his manners prevented
any suspicion being entertained of his
elevated rank, and ne was able to con-
ciliate the esteem of the government, and
the gratitude of his pupils. It was at
this place tliat he learned tlie tragical
end of his unfortunate father. Some
political movements taking place in the
Grisona, mademoiselle d'Orleans (quitted
the convent at Bremgarten, and joined
her aunt, the princess of Conti. M.
Montesquiou thought that he might now
five an asylum to the prince, of whom
his enemies had for some time lost all
trace. The duke received the most hon-
orable testimonials in quitting Reiche-
nau, and retired to Bremgarten. Here
he remained, under the name of Corby,
until the end of 1794, when he thought
proper to quit Switzerland, his retreat
there being no longer a secret. In the
state in which Europe then was, there
was no country where the duke of Or-
leans (for this was now tlie title of the
subject of this article) could be safe
from the indefatigable persecution of
which he was the object. He resolved
to go to America ; and Hamburg ap-
peared to him the best place for his em-
barkation. He arrived in tiiat city in
1795. Here his expectation of &nds
failed him, and he could not collect suf-
ficient pecuniary means to reach the
United States ; but, beinff tired of a state
of inactivity, and provided with a letter
of credit for a small sum on a Copenha-
gen banker, he resolved to visit the north
of Europe. This banker succeeded in
obtaining^ passports for him from the
king of Denmark, not as the duke of Or-
leans, but as a Swiss traveller, by means
of which he was able to travel in safety.
He travelled through Norway and Swe-
den, seeing every thing worthy of curi-

osity in the way ; journeyed on foot vnA
the Laplanders, along the mountains, to
the gulf of Tys, and reached the North
Cape August 24, 1795. After staying
a few days in this resion, at eighteen
degrees ^m the pole, he returned
through Lapland to Tomeo, at the ex-
trinity of die gulf of Bothnia. From
Tomeo he went to Abo, and traversed
Finland ; but he did not visit Russia,
where Catharine then reigned. He next
visited Stockholm, where he was discov-
ered by the French minister in Sweden,
and introduced to the king and the duke
of Sudermania, who treated him with
distinction, and offered him every fiicility
for seeing all he desired in the kingdom.
After this northern tour, tlie position of
the duke of Orleans, in a political and
pecuniary point of \iew, did not improve.
Emissaries from different parties sought
the prince, bringing him different prop-
ositions. Some of tiiem were desirous
of drawing him into foreign . camps ;
while the agents of the executive direC'
tory, to which he had become an object
of suspicion, wished to persuade him
to leave Europe. In #he month of Au-
gust, 1796> he received a letter from his
mother, the duchess of Orleans. She
begged him, in the most touching man-
ner, in her own name, and for the inter-
est of her other children, detained at
Marseilles, to quit Europe for America.
He sailed from the Elbe, on board the
American ship America, in September,
1796, and, in October, he arrived in Phila-
delphia. The passage of his two broth-
ers, the duke of Moutpensier and count
Beaujolais, wbs not so fortunate. It was
not until Februarv, 1797, that they reach-
ed America, ancf joined their brother.
They brought him more hopes than re-
smirces. The duke of Orleans proposed
to them to travel ii^ the interior of the
United States. Thev set out on horse-
back, accompanied by a single servant,
named Beaudouin, who had followed
the duke of Orleans to St. Gothard.
They went to Baltimore, and thence into
Virginia, where they saw general Wash-
ington at Mount Vernon, who, before the
expiration of his presidency, had invited
them to visit him. After travelling
through the south, they visited d)e falls of
Niagara, and, in the month of July, 1797,
they returned to Philadelphia, at the time
the yellow fever raged in that city.
These three princes, who had been bom
to the highest fortune, could not quit this
dangerous residence for want of money.
It was not until September, that their moth-

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LOUIS PHILIP L

119

er, liamg ncowend potKnion of ber
propoiy, Mpplied them with meaiM for
a new joimiey. Th^ went fint to New
Yoik, and then Tinted Rhode laland,
MewMKhiiiwinnj New Hampshire and
Maine. On dieir return to Boston, the
newspapm informed them of the ban-
ishment of their mother. They then
went immediately to J^hihidelphia, in-
tending to join their mother in Spain,
whither they were informed that she
had been transported. Bat the want
of funds, and the war between Spain
and England, opposed their desires.
There seemed but one course left, namely,
to go to Louisiana, and thence to Havana^
They left Philadelphia in December,
1797, and went down tlie Ohio and the
MisBiBBippi, to New Orleans, where they
were kindly received. They staid in
this city fiye weeks, waiting for a Span-
ish Teasel ; but, being disappointed, they
embarked in an American ship, which was
taken, on the voyage, by an English
fiigate. The duke of Orleans discor-
er»i himself to the captain, who landed
him with his brothers at Havana, the
11th of March. They attempted in vain
to get a' passage to Europe. Notwith-
standing their regret at being obliged
to live out of France, they would have
been contented in obscurity, if they
could have obtained the means of an
honorable subsistence. Their reception
by the Spanish authorities, and the in-
habitants of Havana, gave them some
hopes; but the court of Madrid disap-
ponited them, by forcing them to quit
the island of Cuba. An order was issued
at Anuijuez, directing the captain-geiieml
of Havana to send the three brothers
to New Orleans, without providing them
yviih any means of support. The broth-
CFB refused to go to the place designated,
but went to the English Bahamas, where
they were kindly received by the duke
of Kent, who, however, did not feel
authorized to give them a passage to
England in a British frigate. They were
not discouraged, but sailed in a small
vessel to New York, whence an English
packet carried them to Falmouth, and
they arrived in London in February,
1800. The duke still desired most
earnestly to see his mother, and the
^ English government allowed him to

take passage to Minorca in a frieate.
The war between Spain and England
threw manv obstacles in the vniy of the
interview between the duke and his
mother, and he was obliged to return
to England withont seeing her. He then

established himseKwith his brothers, at
Twickenham, in Enf^and. The duke
Tisited every thing curious in Great Brit-
ain, and smdied, with great zeal, the po*
litieal economy and the laws of tlie coun-
try. The duke of Mon^naier died in the
Tear 1807. Count Beaujolais was in feeble
health, and was ordered by the English
physicians to visit a warmer climate.
The duke accompanied him to Malta;
from thence to Sicily; but, before their
arrival at the latter place, the young
prince died. Aftftr many adventures, the
duke met his m'otlier at Mahon, from
whom he bad been separated sixteen
years. In November, 1809, he was mar-
ried, at Palermo, to the princess Amelio,
daughter of the king of Sicily. After the
fall of Napoleon, he returned to Paris, and
enjoyed the happiness of finding himself
in a country which had not forgotten his
former services. On the return of Napo-
leon, in 1815, be sent his familv to Eng-
land, and was ordered by the king to take
command of the department of the North.
He remained in this situation until the
24th of March, 1815, when he gave up
the command to the duke of Treviso, and
went to join his family in England, where
he again fixed his residence at Twick-
enham. On the return of Louis XVIII,
after the hundred days, an ordinance
was issued, authorizing, according to
the charter, as it then stood, all the
princes of the blood to take their seats in
the chamber of peers ; and the duke re-
turned to France, in September, 1815, for
the purpose of being present at the ses-
sion. ^Here he distinguished himself by
a display of lil)eral sentiments, wiiich
were so little agreeable to the administra-
tion, that he retired asain to England,
where he remained till 1817. lie wcs
not agau) summoned to sit in the cham-
ber, on his return, and remained, there-
fore, in private life, in which he displayed
all the virtues of a cood father, a good
husband, and a good citizen. In 1824,
he received the title of royal highness.
His son, the duke of Chartres (now
duke of Orleans), was educated, like his
ancestor, Henry IV, in the public institu-
tions of the country, and distinguished
himself by his success in his studies.
The family of the duke was ever a model
of union, good morals, and domestic
vutues. Personally simple in his tastes,
order and economv were combined with
a magnificence brooming his rank and
wealth. The protector of the fine arts,
and the patr of letters, his superb palace,
and his delightful seat at Neuilly, were

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100

LOUIS i^inup I--ST. LDUia

ornamented nidi the

of the

former^ and freouented oy the dietingtiiah*
ed Bchoian of tne age. After the events
of Jul V, 1830 (aee Ihnux, sbice 1814)» the
deputies present, 89 in number, inTited the
duke to assume the executive power, un-
der the title of lieutenant-general of the
kingdom. During the three days, he had
remained at his countiy seat, at Neuilly,
and had even kept himself concealed, so
that confidential messenserB, sent to him on
Wednesday and Thursday, had been un-
able to find him. But, after the combat
was over, feeling that the throne was now
vacant, he accepted the invitation of the
deputies, to become lieutenant-general of
the kingdom, and, on Saturday, issued a
proclamation in that capacity. The ses-
sion of the chambers was opened, Aug. 3;
by the lieutenant-general, who communi-
cated to them the abdication of Charles X
and his son. Aug. 6 and 7, the chamber
of deputies decla^ the throne vacant,
and invited the duke of Orieans to assume
tlie title of king of the French, under cer-
tain conditions, which he accepted, and,
on the 9th, took the oath to the new char-
ter. Thus, in a fiirtnight from the issuing
of the ordinances, the old dynastv was
overthrown, and a new one estabhshed,
on republican principles. The kins im-
mediately proceeded to name his cabinet,
firom the moderate liberal partv. Guizot,
Louis, Mol^ the duke de Brogue, Gerard
and Sebestiani, were the new heads of
the difterent departments, and numerous
changes were made in the officers of the
government, to establish a hannony be-
tween the agents of power and the new
system. In the administrative branch,
out of 86 prefects, 76 were removed; 196
subprefectB, out of 277 : in the military,
65 general officers, out of 75, were chang-
ed ; 65 colonels removed, and nearly all
the governors of fortresses : in the leeal,
74 procureun were dismissed. The ror-
ei^ relations of the new dynasty next re-
quired attention : special missions were
sent to the difiTerent courts of Europe, and
were favorably received by all except
Russia. Security against foreign invasion ,
and the preservation of domestic tranquil-
lity, were provided for by the organiza-
tion of the national guard, and the increase
of the army. (For the trial of the inini»-
ten, the riots attending it, and farther de-
tails on the history of France, see ^^Ippen-
dtf to the concludmff volume of this work.)
Peyronnet (q. v.), Chantelauze, Guemon
de Ranville and Polignac (q. v.\, were sen-
tenced to imprisoument for lire, with the
additional penalQr of civil death, in the

case of Pofignae. Nor. 9, the _

vras chanced, and Laffitte became pr o ia-
dent of Uie councii and niinisler <^
finance, who was saoceeded in this post
by Casinur-Penier (see Parriar'L March
14, 1831.

Louis, the haron, fbrmeily more known
as the abU LoumSj a French Htafeeman,
was bom at Toul, in 1755, and, at the
outbreak of the revolution, was connected
with the parliament of Paris. He showed
himself fiivorable to the new principles^
and, in 1790, assisted the bishop of Autun
(Talleyrand) in celebrating mass on the
Champ de Man. On the overthrow of
royalty, he retired to England, where he
remained until the revolution of the 18th
Brumaire. During the imperial govern-
ment, he held several inferior posts in the
departments of war and finance, and, in
1814, was made minister of finance by
Louis XVIII, whom he followed to Ghent.
After the second restoration, he was a
member of the chamber of deputies, until
1818, when he was again placed at the
head of the financial department, from
which he retired in 1819, m conse<}uence
of the arbitnuy tendencvof the ministerial

Eolicy at that time. After this retirement,
e voted, in the chamber of the deputies^
with the liberal side of the house ^c6U
gauchey M. Louis was the first minister
of finance under the new ffovemment, in
1890, but was succeeded (Nov. 3) by Laf-
fitte. (q. V.) M. Louis is largely engaged
' in the wine trade, and has accumulated a
large fortune by successful commercial
operations. Of a cool temperament, his
moderation has never permitted him to
ioin in the extremes of any party ; but his
honesty, information and good sense seem
to have acquired the esteem and confi-
dence of all.

Louis, St.; the chief town of Missouri,
on the west bank of the Mississippi, 18
miles, by water, below the junction of the
Missouri, and 14 above that of the Mara-
mec, SO below that of the Illinois, 200 above
that of the Ohio, 1180 above New Or-
leans, about 1100 below the faUs of St.
Anthony, 897 from Washington ; Ion. 8Sf^
30^ W.; lat 38*> ae' N.: population, in
1810, 1600 ; in 1890, 4596 ; in 1830, 5852.
The situation of the town is elevated,
pltjasant and healthy. The ground on
which it stands rises gradually torn die
first to the second bank. Tmee atreeta
nm paraUel with the river, and are inter-
sected bv a number of othera at right an-
gles. The town extends along the river
about two miles. The second bank is
about 40 feet higher than iUe pbun on

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ST. LOUIS-LOtnSIANA TSlRiTORY.

TiMdi the town is ehiflfisr biiit» and affordi
a §a^ riew of the town and river. On
tluB bank atan'd the fortificationa erectedi
in early timea, for the defence of the place.
Hie «>wn conCaina several houses or pub-
lic wofahifi, among which is a Catnohc
cadMdral, and a theatre. The houses
are mostly of wood, but many are built
of stone, and whitewashed. Most of
them are furnished with a large garden. —
Sl Louis was first established in 1764. It
ia, at present, in a state of rapid improve-
ment, fiist increasing in population and
trade. Its situation is advantageous and
interesting, being more central, with re-
gard to uie whole territory belonging to
tlie U. Ststes, than any other considerable
town ; and, uniting the advantages of the
three great rivers, Miasisnppi, Missouri
and Ulinois, with their numerous branches,
end possessing unrivalled &cilities for an
extensive trade, it will probably become a
iai^ city, and be the centre of an exten-
sive commerce. The country around and
west of St. Louis, for the distance of 15
miles, is an extended prairie, of a very lux-
uriant aoil.. (For the college, see MUtowL)

Louisa, Augusta WiLHJKL|fiKrA Aha-
UA, queen of Prussia, daughter of Charles^
duke of Mecklenbunr-Strelitz, was bora
March 10, 1776, at Hanover, where her
father was commandant When six years
ok), she k)st her mother; and her grand-
mother, at Darmstadt, took charge of her
education. In 1798, the present king of
Prussia, then prince roval, saW her at
Frankfcrt, when she and her sister were
presented to his iiither. The prince was
immediately struck with her uncommon
beauty, and was soon after betrothed to
her. Prince Louis, of Prussia, was be-
trothed, on the same day, to her sister, the
prraent duchess of Cumberland. Dec. 24,
1793, the princess Louisa was married to
the crown-prince at Berlin, and, when her
husband ascended the thrcMae, Nov. 16|
1797, she became, in her exalted station,
tlie model of a wife, a mother, and a queen,
who alleviated miseiy wherever she coukl,
and promoted merit In 1806, when
Pruana was suffering severely under the
burdens of war, this princess became still
more popular: indeed, her beauty and
grace, her benevolent and pure character,
her sufferings and her fortitude, rendered
her an obj^ ahnost of adoration. She
died m 1810.

LouisBUBe; capital of Cape Breton;
atualed on a point of land on the south-
east side of the island; k>n. 59° 56^ W.;
laL4SPS4fN. Its streets are regular and
broad, eoanstiDg, fcnr the most part, of

vol.. VIII. 11

stone hooses^ with a ]aa» parade at a littls
distance fiom the citade], the inside of
which is a fine square, near 200 feet every
way. The town is half an EngUsh mile
in length, and two in circuit . The har-
bor is excellent, and m more than half an
English mile in breadth in the narrowest
part, and six miles m length, &om north-
east to south-west The principal trade
of Louisburg is the cod fishery. It was
taken fi^m the French by the English
fleet, under sir Peter Warren, and the
American forces, commanded by sir Wil-
liam Pepperel, in the year 17^ but af-
terwards restoi^ to France, bv the treaty
of Aix-larChapelle, in 1748. It was again
taken by the English, under the command
ofadmiralBoscawen.and lieutenant-gen-
eral Amherst, in July, 1758, and its &rti-
fications have been since demolished.

Louis d'or ; a French gold coin, which
received its name from Louis XIII, who
first coined it in 1641. (See the article
Coins.) The value of the LouU is there

S'ven at $iJ35, Louis XIII coined,
lewise, a piece of silver money, called
lows hUmc^ also e^uSj and, among us,
Drench erotons.

Louisiana Territory. The French,
when in poasession of a great portion of
the continent of North America, seem to
have applied this name, in a vague man-
ner, to ail the territories claimed by them
south snd west of Canada. In this sense,
it must be considered as coextensive with
the valley of the Mississippi, bounded on
the east by the Allegbaniea, and stretching
westerly an unknown and indefinite ex-
tent to the Spanish dominions and the
then unexplored wilds of the interior.
By the treaty of 1763, which made tlie
MisBissippi the boundary between the
English and French colonies, the name
was limited to the part of the valley west
of the river, but still of an unsettled extent
westward. This region was purchased
of France by the U. States, by which it
has been explored, and formed into the
states of Louisiana and Missouri and the
territoriesof Arkansas and Missouri. We
shall here give a general account of the
progress of discovery in this great region,
and of its history, referring, fbr local details,
to the separate heads jbove mentioned.
The Spaniards were the first to colonize,
if not to discover, Florida, the western
limits of which were by no means accu-
rately fixed ; and De Soto (q. v.) was
probably the first white man who saw the
Mississippi, which he crossed in one of
hk expeditions, not &r fi^m the influx of
the Red river. In 1673^ a French miS"

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1»

iXNTIBIANA TEUinORT.

flionarj, Marqaede (q. ▼•)» with JoKettay a
citizen of Qiidiec, croawd the oountiy

^m lake Michigan to the Mimiwwppi,
wfaieh they descended to the mouth or the
Aikan a a fc Q oo Reeualda Foyagei (Paris,
1681), publiBfaed by Therenot, ae a sup-
plement to his collection. — Six yean later,
be la Salle (q. v.), commander of a ibfton
lake Ontsrio, set out to explore the coun-
OT, having in company iiLther Hennepin,
lliey jpaaaed the winter on the Illinois, and
LaSiuIe returned to Canada to procure
supplies, leavinff the missionaiy with
ordera to ascend the Misaisaippi to its
sources. In the spring of 1680, Henne-
pin accordingly descended to the mouth
of the river, ioUowed up its course to the
falls of Sl Anthony^ and, on his return to
France, published an account of his trav-
els, in which he called the region Lftuina-
no, in honor of Louis XIV. (See Henne-
pin.) The first attempts at the coloniza-
tion of this region were not made till 1699,
when an exp^tion sailed fix>m Rocbeibrt,
under the command of Lemoine d'lbber-
ville, a Canadian naval officer of reputa-
tion, who was the first to enter tlje Missis-
sippi by sea, and who laid the foundation
or the first colony at Biloxi. The Span-
iaids, who had not lone before established
a settlement at Pensacola, protested against
the occupation of this country, which
they claimed to be included within the
limits of Mexico, by the French, but were
not able to prevent their occupying a new
poet on Mobile river, in 1702. The
French had kept up a communication be-
tween their colonies in Canada and Lou-
isiana, and had been active in exploring
the country, principally on the river and
to the esst of it In 1713, a census of the
latter colony gave a population of 400.
In the year 17152, Antome de Crozat, who
had amassed a formne of 40,000,000 livres
in the India trade, purehased a grant of
this country, with the exclusive right of
commerce for 16 years. Disappointed in
his speculations, Crozat gave up the grant
in 1717, and the Mississippi commercial
company obtained it. A new government
was formed, consisting of a governor, in-
tendant and royal council, and grants of
land were made to individuals. New Or-
leans was founded, the cultivation of to-
bacco was introduced, and minere were
sent to work the mines near St Louis;
but, in 1731, the company gave up the
country to the crown. The early hostili-
tite of the French with the Spanish and .
English colonistB, and with the different na-
tive tribes, it is not onr intention to relate.
(See JVbfeftez.) The struggle of tly

Fvench and Ktwdish power io Nmdi
America, finom 1^4, is a aabieGt of more
interest The French had scattered them-
selves over the more centnd parts of the
beautiful valley of the MiasisappL Kaa-
kaskia, Cahokia, Ymcennes^ St Oeoevievei
the postof AikansBS, Nachitoches on Red
river, Natchez on die Mississippi, were
rallying-points of the rural populadon in
this immense region, who had adopted,
in some degree, the mannen of the In-
dian huntera, while New Orleans and
Mobile had become places of considerable
commerce. The French claimed all the
country west of the Alleghaniea, and had
established a chain of communicationt
from New Orieans to Quebec, which they^
meditated to sirenethen by a line of fbrU-
fied posts. The JGnglish, who claimed
the country from the Atlantic to the St
Lawrence, found themselves thus exposed
to be shut in upon the eastern slope of the
Alleghanies. The French occupied and
fortified the important position at the head
of the Ohio, to which tney gave the name
of fort da Qtieme. The English geueni
Braddock failed in his attack on this poet,
but the war terminated in the complete
humiliation of France, who, by the peace
of 1763, was obliged to cede Canada, and
all her possessions east of the Mississippi,
to England. The preceding year (Novem-
ber, 1/62), she had ceded all her posses-
sions west of that river, with the island of
Orieans, to Spain, and the name of Louu-
iama now became limited to this pert of the
valley. In the war of the American rev-
olution, Spain ccmquered Florida fix>m the
English, and, by the peace of 1783, that
province was ceded to the Spaniards, while
aU the country between Florida and the
St Lawrence, and the ocean and the Mis-
sisBippi, was acknowledged as an indepen-
dent state. (See t/nOeS SiaUsy Keniuehf^
Tamesseej (mo, &c.) The navigation of
the Mississippi soon became a source of
difficulty between Spain and the U. States.
After much delay, the treaty of 1795 was
concluded between the two powers, by
which a line of boundaiy was agreed on,
and the free navigation of the river secur-
ed to the U. States. In 1798, the Spanish
posts, to die north of 3P, were evacuated,
but Spanish ships committed depreda-
tions on the American commerce, and re-
fused to allow the navigation of the Mia*
sissippi, and the right of deposit at New
Orieans, which had been secured by trea-
tiesL A force veas accordingly prepared
on the Ohio, by the government of the
U. States, in 1799, intended to descend the
MiBsiBBippi and seize New Orleans. A

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LOUISIANA TEBBITORY.

128

chanse of adminiscntioii was followed by
tiie dMbimdmg of these troops, but repre-
sentBtions were made to Spain agamst the
TiolatioD of the treaty, with a demand of
redress, which was answered by the
deGlai;ation that Louisiana had been ceded
to France. The French force destined
ibr the occupation of the country was
blockaded in the Dutch ports by the Eng-
lish, and the first consul ceded Louisiana
I lotbeU.Statesforthe sum of $15,000,000,
by a tieanr dated April 13, 1803. (See
the secret history of this treaty in the Hu-
leire de la Louinaney by Bam-Marbois,
Paris, 1829.) The countir passed peace-
ablv into d^e possession of the U. States,
and measures were immediately taken ibr
organizing its government, and examining
its unknown regions. It was divided into
the territorial governments of Orleans,
which, in 1812, was admitted into the
Union as an independent state under the
name of Louisiana (see Louisiana^ State
of\ and of Louisiana, afterwards changed
to JURswovri, (See Misscwi StaUy and
Missouri Thritory.) The first national
expedition was planned by president Jef-
fersoUf and placed under the command of
captain Lewis (q.y.)and lieutenant Clarke
(afterwards governor of Missouri), with
instructions to ascend the Missouri, cross
the Rocky mountains, and descend, by the
Columbia, to the Pacific ocean. They
began the longest river voyage since the
time of Orellana, May 14, 1804. Havmg
wintered at fort Mandan, they continued
their ▼oyace next spring, and, ailer a
coune otiSiOO miles, arrived at the foun-
tain head of the Missouri. FiHy days
were occupied in crossing the mountains
by a difiicult road ; but shorter and more
easy passages have since been discovered.
Descending die Columbia to its mouth,
they reached the Pacific ocean, at a dis-
tance of 4134 miles from their starting-
point. They returned by a somewhat
shorter route of 3550 miles, having t)eeu
the fiffst who had crossed tlie North
American continent, from the Mississippi
to the Pacific. (See Lewis and Clarke's
Expedition to the Sources of the Missouri^
Philadelphia, 1814.) About the same time,
lieutenant (afterwards major) Pike was
sent to eimlore the sources of the Missis-
0ip(», and, on his return from that expe-
dition, to survey the country lying between
the Rocky mountains and the AUssissipfH,
and examine the sources of the Arkansas
and Red rivers. Having arrived at the
bead of the former, and sufiered much
fiom cold and hunser, on account of the
elovatod ntuation oftfae country, he reach-

ed a large river, which he auppoeed to be
the Red river, but which proved to be the
Del Norte. He had unconsciously entered
the Spanish territories with his party,
when they were arrested by Spanish sol-
diers, and carried, almost without clothing,
to Santa F^, but were afterwards set at
hberty, and returned to Nachitoches. ( See
I^e's JE^pediifitm to (^ Sources of^ Mii-
sissippij Philadelphia, 1810.) In 1819, the
federal government organized a new ex-
pedition, of a military and scientific na-
ture, to examine more carefully,' with a
view to colonization and defensive estab-
lishments, the country east of the Rocky
mountains. It was commanded by major
Long, and a narrative of it has been writ-
ten by doctor James, botanist to the expe-
dition. The party embarked at fittsbuiv,
in a steam-boat, and reached the moutli
'of the Platte in the middle of September.
Haviuff passed the winter on the banks of
that river, they resumed their route in
June, 1820, and crossed the great sandy
desert which extends, in a gentle slofie,
neariy 400 miles, to the base of the Rocky
mountains, and neariy 500 miles finom
north to south. Its surface is flurowed
by ravines, several hundred feet deep, in
which are a few stunted trees. On the
elevated surface of the desert, not a tree
is to be seen ; but it is thickly set vrith the
spiny cactus, or prickly pear. Proceeding
southwardly, they descended the Arkan-
sas, and returned with large collectioDs of
skins of rare anunals, some thousand pre-
seiyed insects, and an herbal of 400 or 500
' new plants. (See Jkcount of an Eamedi-
Hon to the Rocky Mountains, PhiladeJphio,
1828.) Another expedition, under general
(now governor) Cass, proceeded to explore
the British frontiers about the sources of
the Mississippi. Schoolcraft was the his-
torian of this expedition. (TVaoela to the
SoiArces of the Miseissippij in 1820, Albany,
182J.) To complete the survejr of tho
frontier, major Long was sent, in 1823,
with Mr. Keating, to ascend the St. Peter's,
a considerable river which falls into tlie
Mississippi. They traced the river to its
source (375 miles), and, proceedinff noith-
ward, reached the Red nver, whicn flows
into lake Winnipec. (See JVomrfwe of tt«
Second ExpedUion to St. Petals JRtrer,
Lake Jfimi^pec, &c., hy ffUliam H. Keai-
tfuf.) This completed the general survey
of this immense region. Its northern
boundary was setded by the convention
of 1818 with Great Britain, on a Hoe
dravm in 4SP fix>m the lake of the Woods
to the Rockv mountains: the southeni, by
the treaty of 1819 with Spaioi is fiom the

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194

LOUISIANA TEKRnOKY— LOUISIANA STATE.

Sabine lirer, in aS^ N., to the Red rhrer ;
then along that river to lOO** W., thence
directly north to the Afkansas, which it
foUowB to 4SP Na, and thence, in that par-
allel, to the South sea. The statea of
Louiaiana and Miflsouri, and the tenitoiy
of the Arkansas (q. v,), have already been
set oE, and are occupied with a thin, but
active and rapidly inereasiug population.
The great mineral and vegetable wealth of
this vast region, and its almost unparallel-
ed dualities of communication, open a wide
prospect to the prosperous, free and happy
communities that are springing up in its
bosom. The territory west of .the Rocky
mountains, which seems to belong to the U.
States rather by priority of discovery than
as a part of the Louisiana purchase, will be
described underthe head of Oregon. Beside
the works already mentioned, consult Char-
levoix's Descriptumde laJ>/o%a>eUe France ;
Je^rson's Accovmi of Louiiiana ; Stod-
dard'b Sketches of L&umana; and Flint's in-
teresting work, Qeographf and Htatary of
the Misnstippi VaJJUy (Clnciniuiti, 1828.)

Idndsiaiui; one of the U. States, form-
ed in 1812. It is bounded north by Ar-
kansas territory, east by the state of Mis-
sisnppi and the gulf of Mexico. The
eastern boundary line is formed by the
river Mississippi, from lat 33^ to aP N. ;
thence, by the parallel of 81% to Pearl
river; thence by that stream to its mouth.
The eulf of Mexico forms the southern
boundary, and Sabine river the western,
from its mouth to lat 32? N, ; thence the
boundary line proceeds due north to lat
33°, thence due east to the Mississippi;
Ion. 89° to 94° S' W.; lat 29° to 33° N. ;
240 miles long, from north to south, and
210 broad; square miles, 48,220, or
31,463,000 acres: population, in 1820,
153,407; slaves, 09,064 : in 1830,214,69a
The principal rivers are the Mississipp],
Red, Ouachitta, Black, Tensaw, Sabine,
Calcasiu, Mermentau, Vermilion, Atchaf-
alaya, Teche, Pearl, Amite and Iberville.
The lamst lakes are Pontchartrain, Mau-
repas, Bon;ne, Ghetimaches, Mermentau,
Calca^u, Sabine, Bistineau, Bodcau and
Ocittahoola. All the southern part of this
state is a vast alluvial tract of low cham-
paign country, extending from lake Borgne
to Sabine river, and from the gulf of Mex-
ico to Baton Rouge and Red river; about
250 miles long, and from 70 to 140 wide.
This extensive tract is intersected by nu-
merous rivers, bays, creeks and lakes,
dividing the country into a great number
of iaiande. The country abmit the Belize
is one continued swamp, destitute of trees,
and emend with a species of coarw reeds,

fifom lour to fiv« feet high. Nothing
be more dreaiy than a proneet from
ship's mast, while posainff this io

A large extent of country in this

state is annually overflowed by the ]
sippi. According to Mr. Darby, the aye-
ragB width of overflowed lands above Red
river, fixnn lat 31° to 33^ N., may be as-
sumed at 20 miles, equal to 2770 square
miles. Below lat 31° to the efflux of the
Lafourche, about 80 miles in extent, the
inundation is about 40 miles in width,
equal to 3200 square nules. All the coun-
try below the efflux of the Lafourche is
liable to be inundated, equal to 2370 square
miles. From this calculation, it appears
that 8340 square miles are liable to be in-
undated by the overflowing of the Misas-
sippi ; and if to this be added 2550 squaro
miles for the inundated lands on Red riv-
er, the whole surface of the state liable to
inundation, will amount to 10,890 square
nules. Of this extent, not one half is ac-
tually covered annually vrith water. The
immediate banks of all the streams aro
seldom, and many of them never, inundat-
ed ; and they anonl strips of rich, tiUable
land, fit)m a mile to a mile and a half
wide. The country between the Missis-
sippi, Iberville and rearl rivers is an im-
portant part of the state. The southern
half is a level country, yet highly product-
ive in cotton, sugar, rice, com and indigo.
The northern part presents an undulating
sOrflice, covered with a heavy growth of
timber, consisting of white, red and jel-
low oak, hickory, black walnut, sassanns,
magnolia and poplar. The district of
New Feliciana has been considered, by
some, as the garden of Louisiana. The
south-western part of the state, comprising
the districts of Opelousas and Attakapas,
consists moedy of extensive prairies.
Some of tiiese prairies are detached, but
the lines of woods between them are gen-
erally very iuutow, and they may be con-
sidered as' forming one immense meadow.
A large portion of these tracts are barren,
but some parts, particularly that bordering
on the Tcche, are very fertile, and contain
flourishing settlements. It has been esti-
mated, that the prairie lands in the state,
including the swamps along the gulf of
Mexico, constitute one fifUi of its whole
surfiuse. The country on both ades of
Red river, from its mouth to the limits of
the state, is intersected with lakes, which
are more than 40 in number, and all com-
municate with the river. The bottoms on
the river are finom one to ten miles wide,
and of a very fertile soil. The timber on
the bottoms is wiUow, ootton-wood, hon

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LOUISIANA 8TATE--C0DE OF LOUISIANA.

Ids

«^4ocaiti nswiMw and bu^eve; on the
ndi upluiai^ ranyCiieiiiiiber, aflo, hickoiy,
nuilbeny, bbck walnut, with abundance
of grap^-iFinea; upon the second-rate, or
nndy uplanda, whhe, pitch and yeliow
piAeai azkd ▼arioua kinds of oak. — ^The cli-
mate of Louisiana is as cold as that of the
Atlantic states about two degrees further
north. The orange ceases at about 90°,
the sugar-cane at 3P. Sugar and rice
are the staples of the state in general south
of 30°, ana cotton north of that parallel ;
the tatter, however, is extensively culci-
valed in every part of the state. Amoug
the fruits are the apple in the northern
parts, the peach, and several species of
^ (^ ▼•)» the orange, the pomegruiate
and grape. The olive-tree is found, and
the Provencals, who were setded in Lou-
isiana, affinned that the oil was as good
as that of their native country. Indigo
was formerly much cultivated, but has
been, of late, in a great measure abandon-
ed. The rice is remarkably good, and
vielda abundandy. Some attendon has
lately been paid to the culdvation of the
tea plant; and the finest tobacco is raised,
but is not so profitable as suflar and cot-
ton. The kinds of cotton cmtivated are
Louisiana, ffreen seed, or Tennessee, and,
recendy, Mexican cotton. The amount
of sugar made in 1828 was 87,965 hhds. ;
of molasses, 39,874 hhds.: in 1829, die
sugar made was 48,238 hhds. ; and, as there
are 40 gallons of molasses to each hogs-
head of sugar, the hogsheads of molasses
must have been somewhat less than half
as numerous. The tobacco exported, firom
Oct. 1, 1827, to Oct. 1, 1830, was, for die
first 12 mondis, 35,111 hhds. ; for the sec-
ond, 25,491 ; for die diird, 28,028. The
balea of couon exported in the same peri-
ods wet« 304,848, 267,949, 351,890. The
total of exuorts of the state, in 1829, was
112,386,060. The value ofimportB, for die
Hune time, was $6,857,209 -, amount of ton-
nage, 51,903, of which 17,000 was steam-
boat tonnage. The arrivals at the port of
New Orleuis, firom Oct 1, 1829, to Oct 1,
1830, were 286 ships, 445 brig8,366 scboon-
eiB, 33 sloops, 7788team-boat8,— total, 1898.
(For an account of the canals, see Inland
Abwotion.) The U. States granted the
Mate 46,060 acres of land lor a college, and
one thirty-sixth of each township, or
873,000 acres, fiir schools. There are col-
l^ns at New Orleans and Jackson. In
\Wy the l^nslature made a grant to each
parish of $UfiSH to every voter, to be i^
plied to the education of the poor ; m
cooseauence of which nearly $40,000 are
•onuaUy applied lor this purpoae. The

Catholw is the pradominant relicioii of
Louisiana: there are a few BaptisCi and
MethodistsL According to returns fixr
1828, the milida amoimted to 12,^4 men.
The principal towns in the state are New
Orieans (q. v.), Donaldson or Donaldson-
ville (the seat of ffovenunent]^ Nachito-
ches, Alexandria, Baton Rouge, Opelou-
sas, Galveztown, &c. The consatuUon
differs litde finom those of die other states
(see Conttihdioni); but the law is not the
common law which prevails in the rest
of the country, except so &r as its provis-
ions have bleen introduced by statute.
The civil law, which prevailed under the
French dominion, has been retained in its
principal features. (See, below, Loiiit-
lono. Code of.) The present white inhab-
itants of Louisiana are descendants of
the Spaniards, French and Ansio-Amer-
icans, or emigrants fix)m the other states,
or fix>m the Spsnish colonies. The char-
acter of such a mixed population, scattereil
over a great extent of country, roust, of
course, he various. The English lan-
guage and the Anglo-American institu-
tions are, however, assuming the predom-
inance. The eariy histoiy of the state
will be found in the precedmff article. In
1812, the territory of Orleans, naving been
found to contain the requisite number of
inhabitants, was admitted into the Union,
under the name of Jjouuiana. Jan. 8,
1815, the attack of the English on New
Orleans was repulsed by general Jackson.
(See JVho Orleans.)

Louisiana^ Code of. Most of the U.
States, even those which were formerly
colonies of France and Spain, have adopt
ed the common law of England, as the
basis of their municipal law. The stato
of Louisiana, however, has steadily ad-
hered to the civil jurisprudence which
it derived firom the continent of Europe,
though, in criminal matters, the English
jurisprudence has been followed. The
custom of Paris, which the colonists
brought with them, as the law of the new
colony, was first reduced to writing in
France in 1510, and enlarged and amend-
ed in 1580. The deficiencies of the cus-
tomaiT law, both in the mother country
and the colony, were supplied by refer-
ence to the Roman jurisprudence. Lou-
isiana was ceded by France to Spain in
1762, and was taken possession of by this
latter power in 1769^ when the Spanish
law was introduced. The neat body of
this law, called the SieU Partidas^ was
compiled as early as 1263. The Reeopi-
htdon de CasHUoj published in 1567, was
intended to clear up the confusion of th«

Digitized by VjOOQIC

196

CODE OF LOUISIANA— LOUISVILLE.

pravious eoda% bat it )eav«s the authorinr
of the Partidiu generally unimpaired.
The cenion of Louisiana to the U* States
necesBariljT lotrodaced the trial by jury iu
a modified form, and the writ of hcieat
cornuij which were unknown to the pre-
exiating laws. The legislative council of
the territoiy of Orleans borrowed laigely
from the common law, but princi[Mlly
those forms of proceedings necessaiy to
confer efficient powers on the courts or-
flnnized under the authori^ of the Union.
But, in the adjudication of suits between
individuals, the Spanish jurisprudence
was die sole guide, except in commercial
questions. In 1806, the legislative coun-
cil ordered two able jurists to i»epare a
civil code for the use of the territory, on
the groundwork of the civil laws which
governed the territory. It was reported
in 1806, and adopted, but was not allowed
to supersede the previous laws, except as
fiir as those laws were inconsistent with
its provisions.* The "Digest of the Civil
Coae now iu Force in the Territory of Or-
leans," as it was called, though termed a
code, is, in fact, little more thein a synop-
sis of the jurisprudence of Spain. It con-
tinued in operation for 14 years, without
any material innovation. In 1822, Messrs.
Derbigny, Livingston and Moreau Uslet
were selected by the legislature to revise
and amend the civil code, and to add to it
such of the laws still in force as were not
included therein. They were authorized
to add a system of commercial law, and a
code of practice. The code which they
prepared, havios been adopted, was pro-
mulgated in 1824, under the title of the
"Civil Code of the State of Louisiana;"
and the lesislature resolved, tliat, " from
and afler tne promulgation of this code,
the Spanish, Roman and French laws,
which were in force when Louisiana was
ceded to the U. States, and the acts of
the legislative council of the legislature of
* *he territory of Orleans, and of the legis-
.ature of the state of Louisiana, be, and
hereby are, repealed in every case for
which it has been specially provided in
this code." It would seem that where the
code is silent ou any subject, any preex-
isting law on that subject, whether of
Freucb or Spanish ori^n, or of native
growth, would be considered as still in
force. The new code, independently of
the great changes which it has introduced,
isViuch more full and explicit in the doc-

* Id 1819, a law was passed to encourage and
authorize the traaslation of such parts of the Par-
tida* as were conceived' to have the force of law
ui ihe state, aod suck a irandatiou was made.

trinal parts than the former digest . The
theory of obligations, particularly, deserves
to be mentioned, as comprising, in a con-
densed and eveu elegant form, the most
satisiactoiy enunciation of geaml princi-
ples. The jurisconsults appear to hare
profited much by the great work of Toul-
lier, entitied Le i>^ol^cimZ /Vonfoit. The
code contains 3552 articles, numbered
fiom the beginning for convenience of
reference. The most striking and mate-
rial changes introduced by the new code,
relate to the rules of succession, and the
enlarged liberty of disposing of property
by lost will, by curtaihng the ^citaxms
which must be reserved for forced heirs.
The new order of succession confomia to
that established in France by the Code
Napoleon, and will be found to be copied
almost precisely from the 118th novel of
Justinian, from which the Spanish rules
of descent had deviated in some essential
particulars. — ^The legislature of Louisiana
provided also for the formation of a penal
code, by an act passed in 1820,. and in-
trusted the charge of preparing it to Mr.
Edward Livingston. A plan of a penal
code was accordingly drawn up by him,
and presented to tiie legislature in 1822.
The manuscript copy of the part of the
code which had been prepared, was de-
stroyed by ^re in 1824, and Mr. Living-
ston has been since engaged in repairing
the loss, and completing the code.

Louisville ; a city of Kentucky, on the
Ohio, opposite to the rapids or &lls of
that river, on a plain elevated about 70
feet above tiie level of the river; Ion. 85**
30^ W. ; lat 38° 3' N. The soil is rather
sandy, with a substratum of rich clay,
fix)m which very good bricks are made.
The town is regularly laid out : eight broad
and straight streets, parallel \vith the river,
are intersected by 18 others, at right an-
gles, running from the river to the south-
em boundary of the city, which is about
three miles long, with an average width
of upwards of one mile. The population,
bv the census of 1830, was estimated at
about 10,500 : a most rapid increase has
taken place, and the numbers are now
(June, 1831) estimated at 13,000 to 14,000.
The public buildings in Louisville are a
court-house, gaol, ten houses of pubhc
worship, a poor-bouse, city school and
marine hospital, all in good taste. The
private buildings are mosUy of brick,
without much ornament; the warehouses,
particulariy those which have been erect-
ed within one or two years, are very ex-
tensive. Louisville is the most conBiner-
cial city in the west, ocMnmaiMfmy the

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LOUISVILLE.

137

of a great extent of countiy.
ItexpoitB tobacco, whiskey, cotton bag-
sing and bating, hemp, flour, pork, bacon,
hri, and many other productions of the
country. Its imports are various an4 ex-
temive, the easy circumstances of the
people whom it supplies creating a large
demand for foreign articles of comfort and
luxury. The commerce is carried on by
upwBjrds of 300 steam-boats, measuring
from 50 to 500 tons each, some of which are
daily arriving from or departing for all parts
of the immense valley of the Missisrappi.
The aiiivals during the last year exceeded
1500, and the departures were about the
same number ; this is exclusive of keel and
flat boats, which must have amounted to
at least that ^number. Louisville is the
peat commercial depot for the country
bordering on the Ohio and its tributary
waters^ and the Mississippi above Natch-
ez, the country lying near to the great
lakes resorting to this city for many arti-
cles of trade. A bridge over the Ohio is
contemplated to be built at this place,
which vrili ffive great facilities to the in-»
tercouise wita the state of Indiana ; and a
ndl-road is about being commenced, to
connect the trade of I^xington and the
rich counties of the centre of Kentucky
with its commercial mart The public
building most worthy of note is the ma-
rine hospital, erected from funds granted
by the state. It cost about $40,000. It
is supported by annual grants from the
general marine hospital fund of the U.
States, and* from a tax on auction sales
within the city : this institution annually
alleviates the distresses of hundreds of
sick and infirm boatmen and decayed sea-
men. The city school was estabushed in
1890. The building is of brick, and is
three stories high : in each story is a sepa-
rate school, chiefly on the monitorial plan.
It will accommodate about 600 children,
and now contiuns about 400. There are
several excellent private schools. A
branch of the bank of the U. States was
established in 1817. Louisville has also
an insurance-office, three daily papers,
and a weekly price-current. There are.
50 licensed hacks and about 150 drays and
carts. Mail-coaches daily arrive from the
ereat roads, east, west, north and south.
Mamifactures are yet in their infancy.
There is one manufactory of cotton, and
one of woollen, three iron fbunderies, and
a steam-engine factory, tanneries, &c.
Hats, saddles, shoes, &c., are made. The
LouisviUe and Portland canal is about two
miles in length ; it is intended for steam-
boats of the largest class, and to overcome

a ffdl of 34 feet, occanoDed by an irregular
ledge of lime-rock, through which the en*
tire bed of the canal is excavated, a part
of it to the depth of 13 feet, overlaid with
earth. There is one guard and three hfl
locks combined, all of which have their
foundation on the rock. There are two
bridges ; one of stone, 240 feet long, with
an elevation of 68 feet to the top of th»
parapet wall, and three arches, the centre
one of which is semi-elUptical, vritib a
transverse diameter of 66, and a semi-
conjugate diameter of 22 feet; the two
side arches are segments of 40 feet span ;
the other is a pivot bridge, built over the
head of the guard lock, and is of wood,
100 feet long, with a span of 52 feet, in-
tended to open, in time of high virater, as
boats are passing through the canaL The
guard lock is 1S@ feet long in the clear,
with semicircular heads of 26 feet in di-
ameter; is 50 feet wide, and 42 feet high.
The solid contents of this lock are
equal to those of 15 common locks, such
as are built on the Ohio and New York
canals. The lift locks are of the same
width with the guard lock, 20 feet high,
and 183 feet long in the clear. The en-
tire length of the walls, from the head of
the guard lock to the end of the outlet
lock, is 921 feet There are three culverts
to drain off the water from the adjacent
lands, the mason work of which, when
added to the locks and bridge, gives the
whole amount of mason woik 41,989
perches, equal to about 30 common canal
locks. The cross section of the canal is
200 feet at the top of the banks, 50 feet at
the bottom, and 42 feet high, having a
capacity equal to that of 25 common caimls.
The Louisville and Portland canal was
completed and put in partial operation on
the first of January, 1831, finom which
time up to June 1 of the same year, 505
boats of different descriptions passed its
locks. A bank of mud at its mouth, which
could not be removed last winter from the
too sudden rise of the water, will be re-
moved ^t the ensuing period of low water,
when the canal can be navigated at all
times, by all such vessels as navigate the
Ohio. The Ohio, when the water is
lowest, is not more than two feet deep
in many places above and below the falls,
and rises 36 feet perpendicular above the
falls opposite to the city ; and 60 feet per-
pendicular rises have oeen known at the
foot of the falls. An appropriation of
$150,000, by the U. States, was made last
winter, by which the low places in the
river are to be improveil so as to give four
feet of water, in low water^ from its mouth

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LOUISVILLE— LOUYAm.

to Pitttbuig. Thif impffovemeiit wiU
much ftcifilBte the intercoune with Lou-
krilfe. Louisville has been allowed by
traTeUen and stzangen to be one of the
matest thoroughfiures in the Union. At
feast 50,000 paasengen airive here an-
nually from below, and it is reasonable to
conclude that half that number pass
through it descending. Great bodies of
epiignuits from the east and north pass
through it ; and it is not uncommon, in the
autumn, to see the streets filled, for days
together, with continued processions of
moversj as they are called, going to the
^ great west" In former yean, Louis-
▼me had the character of beinff unhealthy ;
but, since the introduction of steam-boat
navigation, and the improved methods of
living, no town of its size in the U. States
has been more healthy: the year 1822, so
fetal to the health of the whole valley of
the Mississippi, is the last in which any
thing like general sicknesa has been known
in this city. The city government con-
sists of a mayor and city council, chosen
annually, by the vwa voce vote of all rea- .
dents, in their respective wards.

Louse {pediniusy These disaffreear
ble and unseemly insects belong to the or-
der parasUa (Latr.), and are characteiized
by having six feet formed for walking, a
mouth fuinished with a proboscis, anten-
nae as long as the thorax, and the ab-
domen depressed, and formed of several
segments. Almost every species of ani-
mal is frequented by its peculiar louse,
sometimes by several kinds : even man is
subjected to their attacks. They breed
with amazing rapidity, several generations
occulting in a short period. Certain cir-
cumstances appear to be exceedingly fa-
vorable to their increase ; as infimcy, and
that state of the system giving rise to
phthmasis, or the lousy disease. The hu-
man race is infested by several specif
among which are the P. kumanus corporis,
or b<My louse, principally occurring in
adults who neg[lect cleanliness ; and the ^.
humanua capitis, or common louse, most
frequent in children. Cleanliness is the
best antidote against these disgusting in-
trudera. The lousy disease, though now
of very rare occunence, appeara to have
been by no means unfrequent among the
ancients. Herod, Antiochus, Callisthenes,
Sylla, and many others, are said to have
perished from this disorder. Some na-
tions consider them as a gastronomic lux-
ury, toad, at one time, they were used in
medicine. Those of our readere who vrish
for fUll information on these disagreeable,
paraaitesi will frkid vmgh details respecu

ing them in liie worioi of ^h*^, Swsnif
mman and Buonanni, who seam to hftTe
studied their habits and mannen with
great assiduity.

Loi7THERBouRe|OrLi7THxnBim% Phil-
ip James ; a landscape painter of eminenoe»
bom at Strasburg, in 1740. He studied
under Tischbein, and afterwards under
Casanova, and displayed creat talents in
the delineation of battles, hunting-piecesy
&c. After having been admitted a mem-
ber of the academy of painting at PaoiB^
where he was first settled, he removed, in
1771, to London, where he was employed
in the decorati<nis of the opeia-hoiise, and
also at Druiy-lane theatre. He subee-
quentiv contrived an exhibition, called the
Eidophusikonj somewhat on the nlan of
the Diorama, which, however, did not
prove a very profitable speculation. In
1782, he was nominated a royal academi-
cian ; and, as a landscape pamter, he poe-
sessed deserved celebri^. He also paint-
ed some historical pictures, as the Victoiy
of Lord Howe, ana the Siege of Valen-
ciennes. His character vna eccentric,
and he was so far infiituated with the rev-
eries of animal magnetism, as to have ac-
companied the impostor Cagllostro (q. t.)
to Switaserland. He return^ to England,
and died near London, in 1813.

LouvAiir (Dutch, Loeven, Lenwtn)^ fbr-
meriy the capital of one of the four dis-
tricts of the duchy of Brabant; more lately
of a circle in the province of South Bra-
bant, kingdom of the Netherlands; at pfee-
ent belonging to Belnum. Louvain is
situated on the river Dyle, and a canal
leading firom this river to the Rupel, five
leagues E. N. E. firom Brussels ; lat 5QP
59'a6"N.;lon.4'»41'54"E. Tbereare
seven churches, five convents, a magnifi-
cent hospital, 4000 houses, and 35^400 in-
habitants. Jfohn IV, duke of Brabant,
founded the universi^ in 1496, to which
belonged four colleges, a considerabte
libraiy, a botanical garden, and an anatom^
ical theatre. In the sixteenth centuiy,it
contained 6000 students. Havinff become
extinct during the French revolution, it
was restored as a lyceum (q. v.), and, Oct.
6, 1817, again formally reestabhshed. The
number of students is 580. In 1835, a
philosophical college for Catholic cler-
gymen was fbundra, with the intention
of raising the standard of learning among
the candidates for holy orden ; but the cler-
gy were so much a|^iinst it, that in 1890,
when a Catholic minister was appointed
for the afiairs of Bekium, the philosoph-
ical college was abolished. Louvain has
great^ oontribmed lo nouritii that ifiiiit

Digitized by VjOOQIC

i/MJVAIN— LOUVET D£ COUVRAT.

of oppQMto^ iniuch the Catholio Belgiaiui
hare maiufeBted towards the {[ovemment
of the Netheiiondfl^ and of which the sep-
antkm of Belgium has been the coose-
quenoe. In thehegbiiing of the fourteenth
centuiy, when the city had 200,000 mhab-
itants, the woollen manufiictures support-
ed 100,000 workmen, many of wnom,
after the insuirection of 1378, emigrated
to. England, and founded the English
woollen manufactures. The most im-
portant article of industiy is beer, of which
150,000 casks are exported annual)^.
There are from 10 to Ix lace manu&cto-
lies. The commerce in com and hops is
considerable. During the late revolution,
the inhabitants embraced with ardor the
cause of independence, and repelled with
courage (Oct. 23, 1830) the attacks of the
Butch.

LouvEL, Pierre Louis, the asBaRBin of
the duke of Berry, son of a Catholic mer-
cer, was bom at Versailles in 1783, and
senred as saddler in the royal stables.
From his youth upwards, he was of a
gloomy and reserved dispoeidon, and im-
patient of contradiction, but industrious
and temperate. He often clianged his
master, and oftener his residence. From
aU circumstances, it. is evident that he was
fanatical and eccentric He hated the
Bourtjons, and wished to extirpate the
family, the duke of Beny in particular,
because he was expected to continue the
line. Feb. 13, 1820, about 11 o'clock in
the evening, when the prince was con-
ducting his wife from the opera to the
carriage, Louvel pressed towards him,
seized him by the left shoulder, and stab-
bed him with a knife in his right side.
Upon the first cry of the prince, the sol-
diers of the guards pursued the mur-
derer, who was apprehended and con-
duct^ into the guard-room of the opera-
house. He was examined in the presence
of the xninister Decazes, and immediately
avowedj that, rax years previous, he had
formed the resolution of delivering France
from the Bourbons, whom be considered
the worst enemies of the countiy ; that,
after the duke of Berrv, he had intended
to murder the rest, and, finally, the king.
His trial was conducted by the chamber
of peers. The investigations continued
three months, and 1520i0 wimesses were
examined, in order to discover accom-
plices. At length Bellart, the attomey-
genenJ, declare in the indictment (May
m that none had been discovered, J une
5, Louvel, between his two counsel, was
pkced at the hw of the chaml)er of peers,
sitting as a court of justice. The chan-

eellor IVAmbngry pNtidtml of liie cham-
ber, examined hun. Louyel declared that
no personal offence bad induced him to
commit the murder, but only an exaspera-
tion, created by the presence of the fbreigit
troops, as early as 1814 ; that, in . order to
distract his thoughts, he had travelled, and
visited the island of Elba, but, in that
place, had no conference with Napolecb
or his attendants; that, after Napoleon's
return firom Elba, he was taken mto ser-
vice as saddler in the imperial stables, and,
hence, had obtained this station in the
royal stables. No political party, no indi-
vidual, had persuaded him to conunit this
act. He had read no nevrapapers nor
pampiflets. He admitted that Lis deed
was a horrible crime ; but stated that he had
determined to sacrifice himself for France.
Louvel's defenders alleged a monomania^
or an insanity consisting in a fixed idea,
and appealed, to the dymff request of the
prince for the pardon of his murderer.
Louvel then read his defence. The hiffh
court of justice condemned him to deau.
After a long delay, he admitted the visit
of a clergyman, but, on the day of his ex-
ecution ^uly 7, 1820), paid no attention
to his words, directing his eyes over the
multitude, which wimessed bis execution
in silence. — See Maurice M^jan^ IKaL du
Proc^4 de LouveL OMOMtn, &c. (3 vols.,
Paris, 1820).

LouvE&TURE. (See ToustauU-Linwer'
tvre,)

LouvsT DE CouvRAT, John Baptist; a
French advocate, distinguished as an actor
in the revolution. At the commencement of
the political commotions, he joined the pop-
ular party, and displayed a decided aver-
sion to royalty and nobility. He publish-
ed a romance, entitied EmUie de Vamwnty
oti U Divorce nkuaaxrt (1791), in support
of the prevalent opinions relative to mar-
riage, and spoke at the bar of the national
assembly in fitvor of a decree of accusa-
tion against the emigrant princes. In
1792, he was chosen a deputy to the con-
vention, when he attached hunself to the
party of the Girondists, and voted for the
death of Louis XVI, witii a proviso, that
execution should be delayed till after the
acceptance of the constitution by the peo-
ple. He was denounced by the terrorists,
and included in an order of arrest issued
June 2, 1794. Having escaped from the
capital, he retired to Caen, with several of
his colleagues, and employed himself in
writing against the Jacobins. He was de-
clared an outlaw; on which he fled to
Brittany, and thence to the department of
the Garonne* At length he separated

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lao

LOUVET DE COUTRAY— LOUVOIS.

from his companioDS, and returned to
Pan& where he kept himeelf concealed
till after the fall of RobeapieRe. He sub-
sequently publiahed an account of his ad-
ventures nuring the time of his |>roBcrip-
tion, entitled SToHces mtr PHUtoire d U
R6cU dt me8 P^nZt— a work written in a
romantic style, which has been translated
into English and other languages. Louvet
recoveied his seat in the convention in
March, 1795^ and he occupied the presi-
dency in June following. He was after-
wards a member of the council of five hun-
dred, which he quitted in May, 1797, and
died at Paris, Aug;ust 25 of that year. He
]s chiefly known in literature as the au-
thor of a licentious novel — La Vie du Chev-
dlitr FavJUas,

Louvois, Francis Michel Letellier,
marquis of^ minister of war to Louis XIV,
son of the chancellor Letellier, bom at
Paris in 1641, was earl^ made a royal
counsellor through the mfluence of his
fiither. He displayed so little inclination
for business, and so great a love of pleas-
ure, that his &ther Uireateued to deprive
him of the reversion of the secretariship
in the war department, which had been
conferred on him at the early age of 13.
From this moment younj^ Louvois aban-
doned his habits of dissipation, and de-
voted himself to business. After 1666,
he had th^ whole management of the
ministry of war, and soon exercised a des-
potic control over his master and over the
army. His extensive knowledge, his de-
cision, activity, industiy and talents, ren-
dered him an able minister ; but he cannot
aspire to the praise of a great statesman.
He was too regardless of the rights of
human nature; too lavish of the blood
and treasure of France ; too much of a
despot, to deserve that honorable appella-
tion. His reforms in the organization of
the army ; his manner of conducting the
wars of his ambitious master, if they were
not rather his own ; and, above all, his
successes, render bis administration bril-
liant.— See Audouin's Htstoin de VAd-
mimttration de la Churre (Paris, 1811.) —
But, jusdy appreciated, Louvois must be
cousidered as the evil ffeniusof the showy
but disastrous reign of Louis XIV. While
the kinff was flattered with the idea of
havinff lormed the young minister, and of
directing his government in person, eveiy
thing was, in fact, done by Louvois^ and
according to his views. The generals
were all required to communicate imme-
diatelv with him; and, althoush Turenne
would not submit to this order, yet the
king showed all his letters to his mmister.

and ansvrered them aocordmg to his sug-
gestions. ' Bold and grasping schemes,
which could be executed only b^ the un-
wearied activity and industry of Louvois,
were proposed bv him for the purpose of
rendering himself necessary to Louis, who,
he was conscious, disliked him personally.
Hence, notwithstanding the solemn renun-
ciations of all claims to Franche-Comt^
and the Spanish Netherlands (see Louis
XIVy and Fhmee), war was undertaken
(1667 and 1669)to get possession of them.
The war of 1672, a^inst Holland, was
begun at the instiganon of Louvois, and
would have been finished much sooner,
had he not, contrary to the wishes of
Cond^ and Tureime, insisted upon occu-
pying the fortresses, and thus given the
Dutch time to open their sluices. The
victories of Turenne (q. y,), in 1674 and
1675, were gained b^ a disobedience of
the orders of the minister of war ; but the
desolation of the Palatinate was com-
manded by him. The system of r^iimoit,
as it is called (see Lows XIV), was now
adopted, and Louvois took possession of
Strasburg, in the time of peace (1680).
On the death of Colbert (1683), of whom
be had been the enemy, his influence
became still greater, and one of its most
fatal effects wbs the revocation of the
edict of Nantes (1685X the dragwrnades,
and the consequent flight of so many
peaceful and industrious Calvinists. Lou-
vois was now superintendent of the royal
buildings, and, on occaaon df a dispute
vrith the king about the size of a window,
in which the latter had spoken severely to
him, **The king," said the minister, ** be-
gins to meddle with every thing; we
must give him somiething to do ; he shall
have a war;" and a pretext was soon
found. The system of reunion had united
the European powers in the league of
Augsburg ; ana it was determined to
seize on Philipsbur^, one of the bulwarks
of Germany. This was done vrith. so
much secrecy as to prevent the place
being relieved. The French arms were
successful, but disgraced liy the horrid
burnings and devastations committed by
the direction of Louvois. The Palatinate
viras reduced to a wilderness in mid- winter
(1689). The war was conducted with
great ability by Louvois ; but his arrogance
had long rendered him odious to DduIs.
The king's dislike had been increased by
the crud devastations of the Palatinate,
and when the minister proposed to him to
complete the desolation by the burning of
Treves, he refbsed his consent Louvois
replied, that, to spare his majesty^ con-

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LOUVOnk-LOYELACE.

131

, he hid alMdy deepatdied a coa-
h Olden to that eflfeeL Lomi^fiUed
tfitb indiniatloiiy was prev6iited fioni strik-
mg Ids nmualer only Of the intsiftraiiee of
de Maiotenoii. 8000 after, on
[ himaelf at the royal council, he
I, or ftncied he diaooYered, in
the couniBDance and wmda of the hong,
mailcB of sererity, and was obliged by
fidntneai to retire to his hdtel, where he
died within half an hour. Whaterer may
be our fedings at the airogance, cruelty
and despotisni of LouYois, we cannot de-
ny him the merit of having organized the
bnDiant victories of the reign of Lou]&

LouTRB ; the old royal palace at Pari&
on the north bank of the Seine, a splendia
quadrangular edifice, with a court in the
centre, completed by Napoleon. The ori-
gin of its name^ and the time of the erec-
tion of the oldest part of it, are unknown.
We cidy know tnat Philip Augustus,, in
1214, biult a fixt and a state prison in this
place; that Charies V, during the yean
ld64r--80, added some embelnahments to
the building, and brou^t his tibrary and
his treasury thither; and that Francis I,
in 1588, erected that part of the pakce
whidi is now called the old Lowrt,
Henry IV laid the foundation of the
splendid gaOery which connects the Lou-
vre, on the south side, with the Tuileries ;
Louis Xin erected the centre ; and Louis
XIV, according to the plan of the phyri-
cisn Perranlt, the elegant fi^e towards
te east, toffether with the colonnade of the
Louvre, vniich, even now, is the most
perfect woric of architecture in France.
At a later period, Louis XIV chose the
palace built Iw him at Versailles for his
residence. Alter Napoleon had taken
poss es sion of the Tuileries, he began a
second gallery, opposite to the former, by
which the two palaces would have been
made to form a great whole, with a lane
quadrangular court in the centre; oiiry
600 foet of it were completed at the time
of his abdication, and it has not since been
continued. Since the revolution, the col-
lection of antiquities has been ke^ in the
k>wer floor of the Louvre. Here, also,
the exhibitions of national industry take
place, and the academies hold their ses-
sionSi — 2V Aaoe iheprmUgtqfihe Lowortj
formerly meant, in France, a permission
to drive, with a coach, into the courts of
all the royal palaces. At first, this was
die prerogative of the princes only ; but,
in lo07, when a duke, under the pretence
of indMOsition, rode into the Louvre,
Henry IV gavto him (and, in 1609, the
dnke of SuQy also) permisBion constantly

to do so. At last, during the minoriQr of
the king Louis XIII, all the high officen
of the crown, and dukea^ obtained tLis
privilege fiom Bfarr of Medici.

LovAT (Simon Frazer), commonly call-
ed knd; a Scottish statesman, bora in
1667. He was educated in France,
among the Jesuits, and, returning to his
native country, he entered into the army,
and, in 1693, he was a captain in the regi-
ment of Tullibardine. After having com-
mitted some acts of violence in taking
possession of his hereditary estate, he fled
to France, and gained the confidence ot
the oM pretender, which be made use o^
on his return to Scotland, in order to ruin
his personal enemies. He again went to
France, where he was imprisoned in the
Bastile. and was liberated only on condi-
tion of taking religious orders, in pursu-
ance of whidi engagement he is said to
have become a Jesuit In 1715^ he a sec-
ond time betrayed the pretender, and he
was rewarded by the government of
George I with the title of Lovat, and a
pension. He now led a quiet lifo, uniting
m his own person the contradictory char-
acters of a Catholic priest and a father of
a fimiily, a colonel and a Jesuit, a Hano-
verian lord, and a Jacobite laird. Not-
witiifltandiny the fiivois he had received,
he engaged m the rebellion id 1745 ; and,
after having displayed bis usual craft and
audacitv, he was finally seized, tried, con-
demned, and executed in April, 1747, at
the age of 80. Notwithstanoing his age,
infirmities, and a conscience supposed to
be not wholly void of oflence, he died,
says Smollett, like a Roman, exclaiming,
Ihikt d decorum pro patria moru A vol-
ume of autobiographical memoirB^ by this
resdess and imprincipled politician, was
published in 1797 (8vo.).

Lovk-Feast. (See »^g(qt€.)

Lovelace, Richard, a poet of the seven-
teenth century, was bom about 1618, and
educated at Oxford. On leaving Oxford,
he repaired to court, entered tbe army
and became a captain. He expended the
whole of his estate in the support of the
royal cause, and, after entenng into the
French service, in 1648, returned to Eng-
land, and was imprisoned until the kinrs
death, when he was set at liberty. His
condition was, at this time, veiy destitute,
and strongly contrasted with Anthonj
Wood's gav description of his handsome
person and splenmd appearance in the
outset of li^ He died m great poverty,
ia an obscure alley, in 1658. His poems,
which are light and elegant, but occasion-
ally involved and ftntutic, are published

Digitized by VjOOQIC

133 IX>VBLAGE«-LOWENDAL.

under Ae dtie of Luoaifa, under which noted forlbe extent of kiwuier power, ifit

name be coinplimeDted MisB Lucy Sach- manuftcturiDg efttdiiiBhinenti^ and the ra-

•vereU, a young bdjr to whom he was atr- pidity of its jnrowth ; situated at the iunc-

tached, who, on a fiibe report of his death, tion of the Conconl and MenimacK riv-

married another perron. Colonel Loto- ers; bounded by the fimner on the eaat,

lace, who, for spirit and gallantry, has and the latter on the north ; Indian name,

been compared to sir Philip Sidney, also fVamaait ; the seat of a tribe of prtofVig

wrote two plays, the Scholar, a coinedy, Indians, at the breaking out of Philip^

and the Soldier, a tragedy. war, in 1675 ; incoroorated in 1826 ; oam-

Lover's Lsap; the name of a cltfl^ 144 ed from Francis C. LoweU, of Boston,

feet high, in the island of Leucadia (q. v.).. who was distinffuished by his succeisful

Low Countries. (See Netherlands.) efforts in introducliQg the cotton maou«

Low Dutch and High Dutch ; used facture into the U. States. The hydiuuUc

improperly for Dutch and (hrman. The power of Lowell is produced bv a canal,

two languages are quite distinct, so that a completed in 1823, 1^ mile in length, 60

German and a Dutchman cannot under- feet wide, and carrying 8 feet in depth of

standeachotherany better than a French- water. A portion of the waters of the

man and a German. In fact, the Dutch Merrimack is forced through this canal by

language resembles the Enfflish more a dam at the head of Pawtucket falls, and

than it does the German, so mat a Ger- is distributed in various directiona, by

nlan underetands it much easier, if he has channels branching off from the main

a knowledge of English. The reason is, canal, and discharging into the Concord

that both, Dutch and English, are main- and Merrimack rivers. The entire fall is

Iv derived from the Low German. The 90 feet, and the volume of water which

frequent confusion of the terms DuUh the canal is capaUe of canying, is esti-

and Oerman probably arises from the mated at 1250 cubic feet per second, fui^

circumstance, that the proper name of nishing 50 mill powers of 25 cubic feet

German is Devttrhy and that of Germa-' per second each. In some instances, the

ny, Devtgchkmdj and that the Germans whole power is used at one €»peration, ap-

and Dutch were originally considered as plied to wheels of 30 feet diameter ; but

one nation by the inhabitantB of England, more frequendv the power is divided into

(See Dutch, and Loto GemuuL) two distinct falb of 13 and 17 feet each.

Low Water; the lowest point to which The water power is hekl and disposed of

the tide ebbs. (See the article THde,) by a company, holding a large amount of

Lowell; 25 miles N. W. fifom Boston; real estate, with a capital of $600,000*

Mmt^actunng LJaUishments now in OptraHon,

Name. Capiul. No. of Milk.. Manufaeture.

Merrimack co., $1,500,000, 5, with bleachmg and print works. . printed calicoes.
HamUton co., . . 800,000, 3, with bleaching and print works, j ^^[[""iu^^^^^

Appleton CO, .. 500,000, 2 P ""sh:^^ "'

Lowell CO,. . . . 400,000, 2 j°««~ ^^?^ ^^t-

Woollen factory, i^^tl^^^cT^'

Nhe Works J erecting by Companies iMiefc hme heen orgmnzed,

Suffolk CO, . . . 450,000, 2 mills, coarse cottons. ,

Tremont mills, . 500,000, 2 cottons.

Lawrence co, . 1,200,000, 4 . printed cottons.

The quantity of cotton manufactured at dertaken as soon as surveys are com-

Lowell, in 1831, is estimated at 17,000 pleted.

bales, of 300 pounds each. Population, L6weivdal, Ulrich Frederic Wolde-

b^ the censt^ of 1830, 6477 ; chdrches, 8 ; mar, count of, great grandson of Frederic

VIZ. Congregation^ 3, Episcopal 1, Baptist III, king of Denociark, bom 1700, at

1, Methodist 1, Universalist 1, Roman Hamburg, began his military career in

Catholic 1 ; 2 banks. A charter for a Poland (1713), became captain in 1714,

rail-road from Boston to Lowell was and entered the Danish service, as a vol-

mnted in 1830 ; the capital for which, nnteer, during the war vrith Sweden, hi

$600,000, has been subscribed, to be ua- 1716, her served in Hungary, and distiii-

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LOWENDAL^-LOW COailAN.

193

at tbe battle of Peter>
wvdeiii, and at the sieges of Temeswar'
and Beimde. He next took part in the
wan in Sardinia and Sicily, and was pres-
ent at all the battles from 1718 to 172L
Dtiiio^ peace, be studied ffuonery and en-
ginemig, and was made field-marBhal
and inspector-general of the Saxon in-
iantiy in the service of Augustus, king
of Pohmd. The death of this monarch
(1733J gave him an opportunity of dis-
tingunhing himself by his valiant defence
of Cracow. Having entered the service
of the empress of Russia, she was so well
satisfied with his conduct in the Crimea
aod Ukraine, that she appointed him com-
mander of her forces. In 1743, he was
made lieutenant-general in the French
service, and, at the sieges of Menin,
Ypres and Friburg, was conspicuous for
his courage and skjIL In 1745, he com-
maoded the corps of reserve at the battle
of Fontenoy, in which he took an hon-
orable share. Afler having taken many
strong places in Flanders, he obtained
poeaesBBon of Beisen-op-Zoom, by storm,
September 16, 1747. This place, tiU then,
bad been considered impregnable, and
was occupied by a strong ganison, aud
covered by a formidable anny. The fol-
lowii^ day, he received the staff of mar-
shal. He died 1755. L6wendal was

people in moat parts of North or Lower
Germanv, and man^ of the educated rank
use it when they wish to be very fiuniliar,
or when the^ address people of the classes
before meouoned. In some lesal forms,
it has maintained itself; thus the Ham-
burg oath of citizenship is in Low Ger-
man. Recently, more attention has been
directed to this interesting dialect It is
not, as is sometimes supposed, a corrupted
language, but a distinct dialect, as much
so as the high German, though circum-
stances have caused the latter to become
the language of literature and the edu-
cated classes. fSee the division (krman
Language^ in the article GermoTty ; also
DiaUcL) It is difficult to decide which
of the two dialects. High and Low Ger-
man, is the more ancient Probably, in
very remote times, soon afler the firat
Asiatic tribes had entered Germany, two
chief dialects were formed — a softer and
a harsher — whilst one of the Asiatic no-
madic tribes went northward, and the
other inclined to the south, alonff the
Danube. Diversities of climate, sou and
way of living, may soon have exerted an
important influence on tlie dialects of the
tribes. The rough and woody moun-
tains of the south of Germany, and the
warlike occupations of the dwellere on
the banks of the Danube, gave roughness

thoroughly acquainted with eucineering, . and sharpness to the speech of this re-
geography and tactics, and spoke Latin, ~~~ — •-t^-^ -i-- — j -»-?- —

German, English, Italian, Russian and
French, with fluency. With these ac-
complishments, he combined modesty
' and amiableness of disposition, though a
devotee of pleasure, like the marshal
Saxe, his most intimate friend, whom ho
also resembled in his application to mili-
tanr studies.

Lower Ekfire (Bas Empire) ; a term
^|i4ied to the Roman empire during the
period of its decline. From the establish-
meat of the seat of government at Byzan-
tium (Constantinoplei and the division of
the empire into the Eastern and Western,
the former is often called the Byzantine

gion, whilst the open aud plain country
of the north produced muder manners
and a softer language. Yet an entire sep-
aration of these two dialects could not
take place as lonff as the tribes speaking
them led a nomadic life ; and, even after
they had formed permanent settlements,
much similarity must have remained for
a considerable time. Hence we find, in
the most ancient reconls of the German
language, a constant mixture of both the
chi<^f dialects. (See the article Anglo-
Saxon.) The time of their separation is
not to ue fixed with certainty. So much,
however, is clear, that both dialects, for a
long time, were mixed, and, after their to-

•«o ivniRsr m uim;u voucu uio j^ifiujuvnc ivug uiii«?, nro*c iuja.\;u, ouu, (mi^^i »<««•» w-

(q. v.] empire, and, after the restoration of tal separation, existed for a long time iii-
the Western or Ladn empire, under Char- dependendy of each other — the harsher di-
lemagne, the Gnek empire. Lebeau^s elect in the southern part of Germany, in
Hi^ovre du Bas Empirt begins with the Austria, Bavaria, Franconia, Suabia, on the
fpim of Constantino. Gibbon's Decline Upper Rhine, and in part of Unper Sax-
sad Fall of the Roman Empire embraces ony ; the smoother in the north of G^^

the whole period.

Low German (m German, PlaUdeidschy
Mtderdadsdi, MedarM&chntch ; since the
oxteenth century, also Sasaisdi) is that soft-
er German dialect, which was formeriy
spoken over a great part of Germany, and
^ven now is the language of the coouoon

VOk VIIK Id

many. Lower Saxonv, Westphalia, on the
Lower Rhine, and m all Belgium. The
long and extended dominion of the Low
German dialect is proved i>y the number
of idioms derived from it Of these the
most important are, Lthe Angjo-Saxon
(q. v«) ; li the Norman ; 3. the Dutch, ao

Digitized by VjOOQIC

iSi

LOW CraiM AN— LOWTHL

called mee die durteentfacentaiy; 4. the
Icekndic ; 5. tbe Norwegian ; 6L the
Swedish ; 7. the Low Saxon, as spoken
at present That the High German at-
tained«»neTeitheleai, at an eariy period, a
somewhat superior standing, was chiefly
owing to the circumstance, tibat the higher
intellectual cultivation of Qennanv must
be dated from the period of the Hohen-
staufen (q. v.) or Suabian emperors, and
with them, consequently, the Hiffh Ger-
man sained the ascendency. When, on
the other hand, in the latter part of the
twelfth centuiy, at the time of the emi-
gration from Holland into Germany, the
Low (German had become enriched from
the Belgian dialect of the emigrants, and
the Hansa produced so much activity in
the North, Low German also became,
for some time, a literary language, and af-
fords works of much repute, particularly
the incomparable Renard the Fox. (q. v.]
But Lutfaer^s tFanslation of the Bible gave
predominance to the High German, and
a natural consequence was, that, whilst
this became tbe exclusive language of lit-
erature, Low German was checked in its
developement, and was obliged to give way
to its rival in courts, churches, schools,
and the circles of the well educated. In
a few parts of the country, on]y, it main-
tained its ground in works both of a spirit-
ual and secular character, down to the
beginninf^ of the sixteenth century, as in
Pomerania, Mecklenburg, Westphalia. As
the lanffua^ of the people, Low Ger-
man stul exists, but in a great number of
different dialects, which, in several re-
spects, differ considerably. A supercilious
(usparagement of this dialect, as if it were
a mere corruption of the High German,
has led many German scholars to neglect
it entirely ; and they have thus fidlen into
etymological and other mistakes, from ig-
norance of this essential branch of their
lanffuage. Leibnitz recommended the
study of it as a means of enriching, cor-
recting and explaining the High German ;
and, of late, the scholars of Germany have
begun to turn their attention to tliis idiom.
The study of it is essential even to the
English etymologist, to enable him prop-
erly to understand his own lansuage, as
fiur as it is of Teutonic origin. J. H. Voss
made the attempt to revive this dialect, by
several excellent poetical compositions in
it The most has been done, however, by
Charles F. A. Scheller, who has lately
published a series of Low German works,
or such as are conducive to a knowledge
of Low German literature ; amonff them
an edition of Renard the Fox ; dso the

SkSgl-Bik der SUid Anouuyft, as a
plement to O. G. LBSbmHi Sariaiarti^
rum Brwumgentwm (Brunswick, 1889) ;
Der LaUn Dodrindl (Branswick, 1835) ;
BiUhtrkunde dor Satiisch-Medardtuiidiem
Spraehe (Uterature of the Sassic-Low
German Language) (Brunswick, 1826). In
the preface to the Laien DodrinM, Mr.
Scheller speaks of having made use of
nearly 2000 Sassic writings, for a diction-
aiy of this dialect, which he was prepar-
ing. The Versuch einu Enmish-Mider-'
M&chgisehen WorUrbuchs (5 vols., Bremen,
1771) ; the HoUlein Idioticon of Schtitzel ;
the GtsekickU der ^leder-SachMclien
Sprache von Johann Friedrieh August KSn-
aming (Magdeburg,1800); the Versitehei$ter
piaUdeutschm SprachUhre mit besondertr
BerUcksichtigung der Mecklenbiur^chen
Mundart von J, Mus/eus (New Strehtz and
New Brandenburg, 1829), deserve mention.

Lowlands; a term applied to tlie south
parts of Scotland, in coutnulistinctton to
the Highlands^ which comprise tlie north-
em and western parts, (See HighlandBf
and Scotland.)

Lo WRY, Wilson, F. R. S., a modem Eng-
lish engraver of eminence, was bom in
January, 1762. After studying medicine
for some years, he devoted himself to en-
graving. He is the inventor of a ruling
machine, posBessing the property of ruling
successive lines, either equidistant or in
just nadation, from the greatest required
vridth to the nearest possible approxima-
tion ; also of one capable of drawing lines
to a point, and of forming concentric cir-
cle& In 1798, he first introduced the use
of diamond points for etching — an inven-
tion highly important, on account of the
equality of tone produced by them, as
well OS of their durability. Many other
useful improvements in ensraving were
also discovered by him, and he was the
first person who succeeded in what is
technically termed " biting steel in" well.
Messrs. Longman's edition of doctor
Rees's Cyclopeedia, commenced in 1800,
for nearly 20 years occupied a considera-
ble portion of his time. He also labored
for Wilkins's VUruoiuSy and Mcigna Gr<t-
cta, Nicholson's Architectural Dictionaiy,
and, lastly, the EncychptJBdia Metropoli'
tanOj on which he was emploved till his
last illness. He died June 23,1824. His
ehrf-eTceuore is conendered to be an engrav-
ing from the Doric portico at Athens, in
Nicholson's Architecture^ He was elected
a fellow of the royal society in 1812:

LowTH, Robert, a distinguished
lidi prelate, was bora at Buriton, in 171I
He received his education at Winchefltar

Digitized by VjOOQIC

L0WTB--LOYOLA.

V»

Rbooiy wfaeaee he was elected, in 179Q,tD
New coU^i^ Oxford, of which he was
eboean a fellow id 1734, and, in 1741, was
efeeted profeasor of poetry in the univer-
flity of Oxford. In 1753^ he published his
Ik soara Poesi Hebr€Borum PraltcHones
Aettdemic€R (4to.), which has been trans-
bded into English, French and German.
The beat edition is that of Leipsic, 1815,
with notes by Michaelis Rosenmiiller,
&C. In 1754, he received the degree of
D. D. from the university of Oxford, by
diploma, and, in 1755, went to Ireland, as
chaplain to the marquis of Hartington,
appointed lord lieutenant, who nominated
mm bishop of Limerick, which prefer-
ment he exchanged for a prebend of Dur-
ham, and the rectory of Sedgefield. In
1758, was published bis Life of William
of Wykeham (8vo.), which, in 1762, was
followed by a Short Introduction to the
English Grammar. In 1756, a misun-
deistanding took place between doctors
Lowth and Warfourton,the latter of whom
took ofieuce at. certain passages in the
Pridectiones, concerning the b^k of Job,
which he believed to be aimed at the the-
oiy of his Divine Legation of Moses.
Warburton, in an Appendix conceming
the Book of Job, added to the 2d edition
of his Divine Legation, indulged in the
acrimony by which be was distinguished,
and thereby produced a reply from doctor
LowUi, in a Letter to the Right Reverend
the ^thor of the Divine Legation of Mo-
ses, which has become memorable at once
for the ability and severity of its criticism.
The ultimate silence of the Warburtoni-
ans gave the victory to their antagopists.
In 1766, doctor Lowth was appointed
bishop of St. David's, whence, in a few
months aflerwards, he was transhited to
the see of Oxford. In 1777, he succeed-
ed to the diocese of London, and the next
year published the last of bis literaiy la-
bors — Isaiah, a New Translation, with a
preliminary dissertation and notes. Rosen-
miiller says he understands and expresses
the Hebrew poet better than any other
writer. On the death of arciibishop
Comwallis, the primacy was offered to
doctor Lowth, but he declined that digni-
ty, in consequence of his age and fiunily
afflictions. He died November 3, 1787,
aged 77.

LoxoDROMic Curve, or Spibai. ; the
path of a ship, when her course is directed
GODstantly towards the same point of the
compass, thereby cutting all the meridians
at the same angle. (See Bhumb Lme.)

LoTOLAf h^iatius (or, in Spanish, Inigo)
di^ a saint ofthe Ronuui Catholic churait

founder of the locietj of Jemitis was bom
in 1491, in the castle of Loyola, in the
Spanish province Guipuscoa, the youngest
or the 11 children of a Spanish nobleman.
Ignatius spent his youth at the court of
Ferdinand V (sumamed the Catholic'), kinc
of Arragon. Till his 29th year, he served
in the army, was distinguished for braveiy,
gallantry and vanity, and made indifiereiit
verses. At the siege of Pampeluna by the
French, he was wounded m both lees,
one of which, being crooked after the
cure, he caused it to be broken again, for
the purpose of having it made straight
During the siege, he had shown great
valor and firmness, and, when the com-
mander wished to surrender, in conse-
quence of want of provisions, he alone
opposed iL As soon as the soldiers saw
him fall, they surrendered. During his
sickness, Ignatius beguiled his time with
books, and, as there were no romances in
the house, he read a Spanish translation
ofthe life ofthe Savior, by Landolphus, a
Carthusian, and a volume ofthe Lives of
the Saints. His imagination was highly
excited by these books. What others had
done, as was recorded in those biogra-
phies, he thought he mi^ht do also, as he
afterwards said himselfT He determined
to live a life of abstinence, penitence and
holiness. The Virgin, he thought, i^
peared to him, with me holy Infant in her
arms, both regarding him with looks of
benign complacency and encouragement.
His brother Martin Garcia observed the
change which had taken place in him, and
endeavored to dissuade him ftom his pur-
pose, entreating him to remember his
illustrious birth, and the reputation which
he had already obtained ; but Ignatius was
firm. Leaving his brother at a sisters
house, in Onate, he proceeded to Navar-
retta, where he collected some debts, and,
having paid his servants and all his cred
itors, gave the rest for the restoration of
the picture of the Virgin, and proceeded
alone, upon his mule, to Montserrat A
Moor overtook him, who, in their conver-
sation, uttered an opinion il^pectins the
Virgin, which appeared to Ignatius olas-

E heinous, and, while the Moor, luckily ft>r
imself, pricked forward, Loyola delib
crated whether it was not his duty to fol-
low and stab him.. The Moor had gone
to a village off the road, and Ignatius let
his mule choose his own wa^, with the
mtention of killing the infidel, if the mule
should cany him to the village; but it
was not so ordered, and he arrived at
Montsenat Here he consecrated his arms
to the Vupn^dedanrf bioMdf hor M^

Digitized by VjOOQIC

las

LOYOLA.

aad proceeded to the hospital at Manresa,
a small place not fiur mm Montsemt,
where he fiuted ri^rouriy, scourged him-
self neither cut his naib nor combed iiis
hair, and prayed seven hours a day. He
begged his bread, bread and water being
his only food, and, eating very sparingly,
he gave what remained to others. In the
condition to which he was thus reduced,
▼isions haunted him, and tempted hhn.
Recollections arose of his birth and breed-
ing, his former station, his former habits
oi life, — ^these compared with his present
situation, in a hospital, in filth and in rags,
the companion of beggars ! This tempta-
tion he at once quell^ and punished, by
drawing closer to the beggar at his side,
and courting more famiuarity with him.
He then shrunk fit)m the prospect of liv-
ing in this painful, and, as he could not but
feel it to oe, beastly life, till the three-
score and ten years of mortal existence
should be numbered : Could he bear this ?
The question, he thought, came from Sa-
tan : to Satan he repli^ triumphantly, by
asking him if it was in his power to ensure
life to him for a single hour; and he
comforted and streugSiened himself by
comparing the longest span of human life
to eternity. It is affirmed that, at this
time, he was entranced from one Sunday
to another, lying, all that while, so appar-
eatl^r lifeless, that certain pious persons
would have had him buried, if others had
not thought it necessaiy first to ascertain
whether ne were dead, and, in so doins,
felt a faint pulsation at the heart lie
awoke from this ecstasy, as from a sweet
sleep, sighing forth the name of Jesus.
Oriandini says it is a pious and probable
conjecture, that, as great mysteries were
revealed to Paul, when he was wrapt into
the third heaven, so, durinjo[ these seven
days, the form and constituuon of the so-
ciety, which he was to found, were mani-
fested to Ignatius. It is pretended that he
retired fix)m Manresa to a cave in a rock,
not &r fit)m that city. The cave was
dark, and not unlike a sepulchre, but, fer
this incommodiousness, as well as for its
solitude, and the beauty of the narrow
vale, where thorns and brushwood con-
cealed it, the more agreeable to him. Hav-
ing remained some ten months at Manresa,
a city which, his bio^phers say, he un-
doubtedly regards with peculiar favor in
heaven, as the cradle of his Christian
in&ne^, and the school of his first evan-
gelical discipline, he determined upon
going to Jerusalem, leas for the desire of
seeinff those places which had been hal-
1 by the presence of our Lord than

seeinff
lowall

in the hope of ecmvertmg Mme ci tiM
infidels, who were masters of the holy
land, or of gaining the nahn of marQridoD\
in the attempt, for of^ this he was most
ambitious. A dangerous passage of five
days brouffht him to Gaeta, from whence
he proceeded to Rome on foot This was
a tMiinful and perilous journey. It was
seldom that he was admitted into a town,
or under a roo^ for fear of the plague, his
appearance being that of a tnan who, if
not stricken with the disease, had recently
recovered from it ; and, for the most part,
he was fein to he down, at night, in a
porcb, or in the open air. He reached
Rome, however, where there was either
not the same alarm, or not the same vigi-
lance. At Venice, he begged his bread,
and slept on the sround, till a wealthy
Spanianl, recognismg him for a countiy-
man, took him to his house, and after-
wards introduced him to the doge, from
whom be obtained a free passage to Cy-
prus. From Jaffii, he proceeded, vrith
other pilgrims, to Jerusalem, in the usual
manner; and, when they alighted from
their asses, on the spot where the friara
were waiting with the cross to receive
them, and when they had the first sight
of the holy city, all were sensible of what
the^ deemed an emotion of supernatural
delight. He now began his return to
SpaiD, more unprovided even than he had
lefl iL No difficulty occurred in repress-
ing to Cyprus. He had obtained a good
character from his fellow-pilgrims, and
they, having taken their passage from that
island in a lar^ Venetian ship, besought
the captain to give him a passage, as one
for whose holy conversaUon tliey could
vouch. The Venetian captain was no
believer in such holiness, and he replied,
that a saint could not possibly want a ship
to convey him across the sea, when he
might walk upon the watea*, as so many
others had done. The master of a smaller
vessel was more compassionate ; and this,
though so much less sea-worthy than the
other tiiat none of the other pilgrims em-
barked in her, reached Italy safely, after a
perilous voyage, while the other viras
virrecked. He had been warned of the
danger to which he would be exposed, in
travelliog from Ferrara to Genoa, where
the French and Spanish armies were in
the field, by both which he must pass,
with the likelihood of being apprehended
as a spy by both. Some Spanish soldiera,
into whose company he fell, pointed out
another route. But I^atius liked to put
himself in the way of tribulation ; the more
sufiferingy the greater merit, and, oodm

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LOYOLA— LUBECK.

187

^[iHDtl^, the more contentment; and he
WIS contented accorduiffly, when, ui)on
attempting to enter a walled town, which
was in poeBeemon of the Spaniards, he was
seized and aearched as a spy. The jour-
oey to Jenisalem, notwithstanding all the
hardships which he endured in it, had so
gmdv improved bis health, that he
tbottgbt the relaxation of austerity in his
courae of life, which bad been enjoined
him as a duty, had ceased to be allowable,
having now ceased to be necessary. He
did not, indeed, resume his former mode
of apnarel, in its full wretchedness ; but he
cbd nimself as meanly as he could, and
cut the soles of his shoes in such a man-
ner as to let the ffravel in, and also to pre-
pare for himself a further refinement of
discomfort, for the fiagnients oi* sole
which he had left, were soon worn away,
while the upper-leather remained, and
thus he contrived to walk, in winter, with
his bare feet on the eartli, and yet no one
suspected that he was thus meritoriously
afihcting himself. In 1534, he returned
to Barcelona, and began to study gram-
mar. After a residence of two years, he
went to the tmiversity of Alcala, where he
iound some adherents; but the inquisi-
tion imprisoned him for his conduct, which
appeared strange, and rendered him sus-
pected of witchcraft. He was not delivered
from the prison of the holy office until
1528, when he went to Paris to continue
his studies, the subjects of which, indeed,
were only works of an ascetic character.
Here he became acquainted with several
Spaniards and Frenchmen, who were af-
terwards noted as his followers; as Lainez,
Salmeron, Bovadillo, Rodriguez, Pierre
Favre, and others. (See Lainez, and Jts-
mis.) They conceived the plan of an or-
der for the conversion of heathens and
sinners, and, on Ascension day, in 1534,
they united for this great work in the sub-
terranean chapel of the abbey of Mont-
martre. Some of these men had not yet
finished their theological studies, and, un-
til this should take place, Ignatius returned
to Spain. They then met again in 1536,
at Venice, whence they proceeded to
Rome, and received the confirmation of
their society from pope Paul III. They
took the triple vow of chastity, obedience
and poverty, in the presence of the papal
nuncio Veralli at Venice, (For the histo-
ly of the order, and its final abolition in
most countries, see article Jesuits,^ The
accoimt of the origin of its name, given by
Lainez, adopted by the society, and re-
corded by them upon a marble tablet, is,
tbiit Ignatius^ losmg his bodily sensesisaw

himself sunoimded with the fbll i p l eader
of heaven ; saw the Father beholding him
with an aspect ftill of love, the Son near-
ixn|^ his cross, and pointing to the marln
ofliis passion ; heard the Father earnestly
recommend him to the Son ; saw himsehT
benignantly accepted by die Son, and
heaiS these words from the lips of the
Son, Ego vobisRomttpropUiusero. There-
fore it was, according to Lainez, that he
gave his order the name of the Society ^
Jtaus, In 1541, Ignatius was chosen gen-
eral of the society ; but Lainez, his suc-
cessor, must be considered, even from the
commencement, as the person who gave
to the order the organization, by which it
has astonished the world, though Ignatius,
by his ardent zeal, may have given it a
great impulse. Ignatius continued his ab-
stinence and penances during life. Even
when general, he used to perform the
meanest labors in his church in Rome,
instructed littie children, though not mas*
ter of the Italian, and collect^ alms for
die Jews and public women, for whose
conversion he displayed great zeal. He
died July 28, 1556, exhau^ed by fatigues.
Forty-three years after, he was declared
htataa bv Paul V, and Gregory XV can-
onized him. His feast in die Catholic
church falls upon Jul^ 31. There are
two works of Loyola, his Constitution of
the Order, in Spanish, praised bv cardinal
Richelieu as a masterpiece ; and his Spirit-
ual Exercises, also in Spanish (Rome,
1548), — a work, the first plan of which was
drawn up in the hospital at Manresa. It
has been oflen translated. Among his
biographers, we may mention Mafiei,
Bouhours and Ribadeneira. Of the mira-
cles attributed to him, at a later period, his
contemporary Ribadeneira says nothing,
as Bayle remarked.

Lubber, a contemptuous name, given
by sailors to those who know not the duty
of a seaman.

Lubber'8'Hole is the vacant space be-
tween the head of a lower mast and the
edge of the top. It is so termed from a
supposition that a lubber, not caring to
trust himself up the futtock shrouds, will
prefer that way of getting into the top.

LuBECK, formerly die chief of the Han-
seatic towns, at present one of the four free
cities of the German confederacy, officially
styled the ''republic and free Hanseatio
city of Lfibeck,** was founded by Adolphua
II, count of Hobtem-Schaumhurg, in 1144,
who, 10 years afterwards, ceded it to
Heniy the Uon, duke of Saxony. Henry
made it a free port for the northern na-
tional granted it municipal privUegei^

Digitized by VjOOQIC

13S

LUBECK— HJCANUS

which were confimied hy several empe-
roiB, and cave it the celebrated LCibeck
code, which was afterwards adorned by
many German cities. In 1226, it became
a free city of the empire, and was afler-
wanls at Uie head of Uie Hanseatic union
(see Hania); its fleet commanded the
Baltic ; Gtistavus Vasa found refuge with-
in its walls from Christian II; and its
Toice decided the afiairs of tlie kingdoms
of the North. Liibeck contains ^000 in-
habitants, and is beautifully simated on an
island between the Trave and the Wack-
enitz, on a slight elevation. The ram-
parts now serve as a promenade. The
nouses are substantially Duilt, of stone, but
old-&shioned. Since 1530, the Lutheran
doctrines have prevailed. Ldbeck was for-
merly a bishop's see, and the cathedral
contains many tombs and inonuments of
antiquitv. The church of St Mary is re-
markable for the beautiful altar by Quel-
lino, for its astronomical clock, and the
allegorical paintings, called the Dauce of
Death. There are also a Calviuistic and
a Catholic church. The charitable insu-
tutions are in an excellent condition, as is
also the gymnasium of seven classes. A
drawing-school for mechanics, a commer-
cial institute, a society for the promotion
of industry, and other societies and insti-
tutions, prove the public spirit of tlie citi-
zens. Liibeck, which, by its situation, is
connected with^ the North sea and the
Baltic, has an important carrying trade
between Germany and the countries on
tlie Baltic, and carries on a considerable
commerce in wine, leather, flax and coi-n.
It maintains important banking operations
with Hamburg, Rostock, Cofienhageu and
Petersburg. There are also two insur-
ance companies and an exchange; and
about 7Q--80 ships are owned by the citi-
zens. In 1817, above 900 ships arrived at
Liibeck ; yet commerce and business have
much declined. By the Stecknitz, which
falls mto the Trave above the town, and
which is connected, by. the Dolwenau,
with the Elbe, the latter river is acces-
sible from Liibeck, and much of tlie mer-
chandise from the Baltic passes by Lubeck
fer Hamburg. Liibeck has sugar-reiine-
ries, tobacco, leather, starch-works, gold
and silver lace, hat, cotton and woollen
manu&ctures, &c. The territory of the
lown, consisting of Bergedorf and the
Vieriands (which belong to Liibeck in com-
mon with Hamburg), is 116 square miles
with 18,000 inhabitants. To this territory
belongs the small town of Travemiinde,
4tunt^ at the mouth of the IVave, with a
harbor and baths. When the constitution

of the empire was abolished, in 1806, Lii-
beck, though disconnected fhrni the rest <^
Germany, remained a free Hanseatic city.
After the batUe of Liibeck (Nov. 6, 1806),.
Bliicher finished his retreat by the capimla-
don of Ratkau. 9500 Prussians and 1500
Swedes were taken prisoners, and Liibeck
was pillaged. In 1810, it formed a part of
the French department of the mouths of the
Elbe. By the consress of Vienna, Liibeck
was again declared a free city. The gov-
ernment consists of four burgomasten
and 16 counsellors. The bodv of citizens
is divided into 12 guilds, each of which
has one vote. The revenue is about
400,000 guilders ; the debt, 3,000,000. In
the German diet, Liibeck has one vote, with
the three other free cities ; and in the ple-
num, one vote. The contingent is 406 men.
Liibeck is the seat of the supreme court of
appeal of the feur free cities. In 1827, a
convention of friendship, navigation and
commerce was concluded between the
U. States and the republics and free Han-
seatic cities of Liibeck, Bremen and Ham-
burg, on the principles of reciprocity,
(•^m. Annual RegitUr^ iv.)

LucA Giordano (also called Lucti Fh
Presto). (See Giordano.)

LucANUs, Marcus Annceus; a Roman
poet, bora at Corduba, in Spain, about
A. D. 38. His father, a Roman knight,
was the youngest brother of the philoso-
pher Seneca. Lucan went to Rome
when a child, where he was instructed by
the ablest masters in philosophy, gram-
mar and rhetoric. Seneca introduced
him into public life. He obtained the
dignity of a questor before he was of lawful
affe, and entered the college of augurs.
Having obtained some celebrity by several
poems, he excited the jealousy of Nero,
who aspired to the reputation of a great
poet The latter, on a certain occasion,
had recited a poem upon the history of
Niobe, before a numerous assembly, and
obtained great applause, when Lucan ven-
tured to enter the lists as his rival, with a
poem upon Orpheus, and the auditors
adjudged him the superiority. From
that time, Nero looked upon Lucan with
hatred, forbade him to make his appear-
ance in pubhc, and spoke of his works
with derision and contempt This in-
duced Lucan to conspire against him»
with severar distinguished persona, of
whom Piso was the head, llie plot waa
discovered, and Lucan, who, according to
the assertion of an old grammarian, wns
so unnatural as to inform against his own
mother as accessary, was condemned to
death. He chose the death of hit uncle.

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LUCANUS-LUCCHESINI.

139

aDd had Ida ytSam opened. He died in
the S7th year of his age. Of hie poems,
only his Phanadia has come down to us,
in whidi he nanates the events of the
civil war between CaBsar and Pompev.
The poem is unfinished, and is frequently
disfigured with luuslmesB and obscurity
in the expression, rhetorical bombast, and
exaggerated figures ; but these defects are,
at l^sst in part, compensated by a noble-
ness of sentiment and a love of freedom,
which run tbrough the whole woric, and
some passages are truly poeticaL The best
editions are the Variorum (Leyden, 1658,
8vo.), Oudendorp's (Leyden, 1728, 2 vols.,
4X0.}, Buimann's (Leyden, 1740, 4to.),
and Weder's, with the notes of fientley
and Orotius (Leipsic, 1819, 2 vols.) Lu-
can has been translated into Engush by
Rowe.
LvcATAs. (See Bahanuu,)
LaccA ; a city and duchy in Italy, origi-
nally a colony of the Romans, which, on
the fall of the Lombard kingdom (774),
waa addedf by Charlemagne, to his territo-
ries, and annexed by Otho I (the Great)
to his German dommions. During the
middle ages, it was repeatedly sold by its
masters, on account of the liberal princi-
ples of its citizens. Louis of Bavaria
appointed the brave Castruccio Castra-
cani duke of Lucca, but this dignity be-
came extinct at lus death. After many
chanaes of its tyrants, having been sold
to Florence, Lucca finally obtained its
fireedom, in 1370, of the emperor Gbarles
IV, for 200,000 guilders. Though of-
ten at war with Florence, it maintained
its independence until the time of Napo-
leon, under the government of a gonfalo-
mart and a council The French obliged
it to adopt a new constitution, and, in
1797, it was united witb Piombino, and
aiven to Bacciocxhi, brother-in-law of
Napoleon, as a principality. In 1815, the
Austrians took possession of it, and, by an
act of the congress of Vienna, it was
granted to the Infiiuta Maria Louisa,
daughter of king Charles IV of Spain,
and widow of the king of Etruria, with
the title of a duchy, and with complete
sovereignty. To the revenue of the
ooQDUy (700,000 guilders), an annuitv
of 500,000 francs was added, which
Austria and Tuscany bound themselves to
pay. In case of the extinction of the
fimiily of the Infimta, or its transference to
any other throne, the duchy of Lucca is to
be anited to Tuscany. JMaria Louisa
accepted the government in 1818, after
tbe leveraion of Parma (q. v.) was secorsd
tohflr. TheduahyofJAioM(413aq4iiai«

mile^ 197/MX) inhalntants) is bounded by
the Mediterranean, Modena and Tuscany,
and, although the soil is not universally
fertile, the people are in good condition.
The Apennines stretch along its bounda-
ries ; in other parts it is well ctdtivated.
The Serchio is not navigable, and is only
used for floating down wood. It forma
the beautiful Val di Serchio. The pro-
ductions are com (not sufficient to supply
the inhabitantB), great ouantities of nuit,
as olives, chesmuts, almonds, oranges,
lemons, fias and mulberries. It also
yields good wine ; olives form the richest
agricultural produce ; the oil of Lucca is
the best of Italy. The cultivation of silk,
and the raising of catde, are also lucrative.
The legislative power of the duke is
limited by a senate, which he annually
assembles. Lucca, the capital, and ducal
residence (with 18,000 inhabitants, on the
river Serchio, in a fertile plain, encom-
passed by bills, which are covered with
olive trees, and, at the summits, with oak
and fir trees), is surrounded with ramparts
planted with trees, and forming a beau-
tiful walk. The streets are generally
crooked and narrow; the churches and

E' " s buildings, plain. The cathedral is
but in a bad style ; the palace is old,
rithout beauty. The Accadtmia degii
Chcuri, founded in 1584, was reoi|;anized
in 1805, under the tide Aecademta LuC'
dusina di Scienze, Lettert ed Arti, by prince
Bacciocchi. Here is also a university
with an observatory. It i? the see of an
arehbishop, and contiuns two large wool-
len, and conaderable silk manufactories.
The inhabitants carry on a trade in oil and
silk, and are actively en^piged in agricul-
ture. The beautiful environs of the town
are adorned with country seats. In the
vicinity are a mineral bath and the harbor
of Viareggio.

LuccHEsiNi, Girolamo, marquis of, for-
merly Prussian minister of state, descended
from a patrician family of Lucca, where
he was oom in 1752, was introduced by
the abb^ Fontana to Frederic II, about
1778, who took him into his service as
librarian, with the tide of a cbamberlain.
Luccheani, the Uterarv friend of Frederic
II, first received a diplomatic appoint
ment under his successor, being sent to
Warsaw, where, at the opening of the
council of state, in 1788, he exerted him-
self with great acdvity, encouraged the
advocates of independence aaainst Russia,
and, in March, 1790, brou^t about an
alliance between Prussia and Poland. In
1791, he waa present at the congress of
Reicheidiiach, ia tfaa capaci^ of a pfenipo*

Digitized by VjOOQIC

IK)

LUCCHESIN1-8T. LUCIA.

tentiaiy, lor effecting, in oon^aDction wilb
the English and Dutch miniBkera, a peace
between the Tuika and the emperor. In
July, 1799; he went once more to War-
saw, where he was compelled, by existiog
circumstances, to break the alliance that
he himself had signed. In January, 1793,
the king appointed him his ambassador to
Vienna; he, however, accoinpanied the
king during the greater part of that cam-
paign. In March, 1797, he was recalled
m>m Vienna, and, in September, J1802,
was sent, as ambassador extraordinary, to
Paris, and afterwards visited Napoleon at
Milan. The breaking out of the war
between Prussia and f^nce, in October,
1806, was unjustly ascribed to his instiga-
tion. He accompanied the king to the
battle of Jena, then signed an armistice
with NaiN>leon at Cnarlottenburg, of
which, however, the kiog did not ap-
prove ; in consequence of which, as he
believed himself to have lost the favor of
the king, he took his dismission, in order
to, return to Lucca. He was afterwards
chamberlain to Napoleon's sister, the
princess of Lucca, and accompanied her
to Paris on the occasion of her brother's
second marriajB|e. Count S^gur, in his
Tableau histonque etpaiitiqtLt de VEvaropty
JffSBea the foilowinf judgment on nis
robsh mission: **No man was better
adapted for the post than he. His ac-
tiviw left no opportunity unimproved.
Vigilant in accomplishing his object, and
rapid in choosing the best means, the
marquis of Lucchesini combined the qual-
ities of an experienced courtier with
the practical knowledge of a statesman.
Learned without pedantry, his |reat mem-
oiy supplied him useful facts for the pur-
poses of business, as well as interesting
anecdotes for conversation. His intimacy
with Frederic II procured him a great
influence ; his powers of insinuation ena-
bled him to penetrate into the interior of
all characters ; his sagacity easily removed
the veil from all mysteries ; and his zeal
and activity, which gave him an open
and frank appearance, concealed his real
views, and persuaded the Poles that he
was as ardently engaged for the promo-
don of their welfare as his own." His
work concerning the confederacv of the
Rhine, SuUe Came e gli Effetii diOa Con-
federaxione RmanOf etc. (Italy, 1819), was
published at Rome, and in a Grerman
translation also, by Von Halem, at Leipsic
(3 vols., 1821). Inthe Mi ddla KAccad.
ijucches. di Sderae^ Lettere ed ArH, I
(Lucca, 1821), he contributed a paper on
the history of Frederic IL He died at

FkMnnoe^ Oct. 1% 1835. He
be coofi>unded with the marquis Ceaare
Lucchesini, counsellor of state in Lucca,
whose Delt lUiutnaume deUe Lmgut on-
tidk€ e modeme e prmcwalmenU ddP
MaliamOf vrocurata net Secoto XVIII dagP
BaUam (Lucca, 1819, 2 vols.), is a contin-
uation of the work of Denina. He has
also published Fragments for the Lite-
raiy History of Lucca.

Lucerne (Ltizem) ; a canton of Swit-
zerland (q. v.), bounded N. by Aarau and
Zu|^ E. by Schweitz, and S. and W.
by Berne ; superficial area, 800 square
miles ; population, 105,600 Catholics. The
elevation of the country is great, but it
contains no very lofty sununits; mount
Pilate, 7100 feet high, is the principal
The soil is senerally fruitful, and more
com is produced than is consumed in
the canton. Great numbers of cattle are
raised, and cheese is therefore among the
chief exports. The people are of German
origin, and in a vexy comfortable condi-
tion. Lucerne joined the Swiss confede-
racy in 1332; its constitution is repre-
sentative, but founded on aristocratic
principles. The sovereign power resides
m the hvndnd, a senate elected for life
by the richer citizens. Two presidents
{ackuUheissen) exercise the executive pow-
er ahemately for a year. Lucerne was
one of the 11 cantons in which funda-
mental chanses in the cantonal constitu-
tions were demanded by the people in
October, 1830. An account of the move-
ments at that time will be feund in the
article SuntzeriaruL — Lucerne, the capital,
is on the lake of Lucerne and the river
Reuss. It contains 6700 inhabitants, and
is, alternately with Berne and Zurich, the
seat of a papid nuncio. The cathedral
contains one of the finest organs in Eu-
rope. General Pfyfter's topographical
model of a large part of Switzerland, in
relief, is to be seen here; and. in the
vicinity is a lion, sculptured in relief
on a rock (1820), to commemorate the
massacre of the Swiss guards, in the
Tufleries. The lake of Lucerne is a
portion of the large lake of Vierwald-
stadteisee.

Lucia, St., or St. Ajcousie ; one of the
Caribbee islands, in the West Ini^es, be-
longing to Great Britain ; 27 miles long,
and 12 broad ; seven leagues south of
Martinico ; Ion. 6P W. ; lat 13^ 37' N.
This idand exhibits a variety of hills^ and,
among othm. two that are remarkably
round and high, said to be volcanoes. At
the bottom of these are plains, finely
waterod witii riven^ and veiy feitiW«

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8T. LUCIAr— LUCINA.

141

The air, by the diipoflition of tbe hilk,
whieh admit the trade-whids into the
vbud, 18 veiy healthy. The soil produces
timber, cocoa nod fa&dc, and is well
adapted for the cultiTolioo of sugar and
cofiSse. It is provided with many bays
and harbora^ the chief of which, called
JaUU CcBTtnagty is accounted the best in
all the Caribbeea. Populadon in 1809;
16,640 ; whites, 1290 ; people of color,
1660; slaves, 13,690: m 1810, 20,00a
The town of Carenage contains 5000 or
6000 inhabitants, and Castres 9000 or
4000.

LucTAif, a Greek autlior, distinguished
for his ingenuity and wit, was bora in
Samosata, the capital of Comagene, on
tbe Euphrates, during the reign of Trajan.
He was of humble origin, and was placed,
while young, with his uncle, to study
statuaiy; but being unsuccessful in his
first attempts, he went to Antiocli, and
devoted himself to literature and forensic
riietoric He soon, however, confined
himself to the latter, and travelled in sev-
eral countries (among others, Greece, Ita-
Iv, Spain and Gaul) as a rhetorician. In
tlie reign of Marcus Aurellus, he was
made procurator of the province of Egypt,
and died in the reign of Commodus, 80
or 90 yeara old. The works of Lucian,
of which manv have come down to us,
are narrative, rhetorical, critical and satir-
ical, mosdy in the form of dialogues.
Tbe most popular are those in which he
ridicnles with great wit the popular my-
thology and the philosophical sects, par-
ticularly his Dialogues of tlie Gods, and
of the Dead. They have given him the
character of being the wittiest of the an-
cient writers. He seems not to belong to
any system himself, but he attacks im-
posture and superstition freely and boldly
wherever be finds them. The Epicureans,
who, in this respect, agree with him, are
therefore treated with more forbearance.
The Christian religion, of which, howev-
er, he knew little, and that only through
tbe medium of nnrsticism, was an object
of his ridicule. In his sarcasm, he not
unfirequendy oversteps the bounds of
truth, sometimes repeats calumnies against
elevated characters, and occasionally, ac-
cording to the notions of our time, offends
against decency, though, in general, he
shows himself a friend of morality. The
best editions of his works are by Bourdo-
let (Peris, 1615, fol.), iy Hemsterhuis and
Rei^ (Amsterdam, 17^ 4 vols., 4to.), and
the l»pont (10 vols., 8vo.). Among the
translations axe those (^ Spence,
rand Frank]]]!.

LvcisN BoiTAPAmTi. (See Affv Mi^
end of this volume.)

LtTcirsK (%U-&earer ,* with the Greeks^
phMphanu) ; a son of Jupiter and Aurora.
As leader of the stars, his office, in com-
mon vrith the Hours, was to take care of
the steeds and chariot of the sun ; and he
is represented riding on a white horse, as
the precursor of his mother ; therefore the
morning star. He is also the evening
star (Huptrui\ and in this character has
a dark-colored horse. For this reascMi,
riding horses (duvUorii) were consecrated
to him, and the Romans gave him the
name of DttuJUor^ It has lone been
known, that tbe evening and monunff star
are one and the same, viz. the beautiful and
bright planet Venus. — ^The name of Lucifer
is also given to the prince of darkness, an
allegorical explanation of the fiithere of the
church makinff a passage of Isaiah (ix, 23V
in which the kmg of B&ylon is compared
with the morning star, refer to the evil
one.

LuciLius, Caius Ennius, a Roman
knight, grand uncle to Pompey the Great
on the maternal side, bom at Suessa (B.C.
149), served his first campaign against
Numantia, under Scipio Amcanus, with
whom he was very intimate. He is con-
sidered the inventor of tbe Roman satire,
because he first gave it the form under
which this kind of poetry was carried to
perfection by Persius, Horace and Juve-
nal His satires were superior, indeed, to
the rude productions of an Ennius and
Pacuvius, but he, in turn, was surpassed
by those who followed him. Horace com-
pares him to a river which carries along
precious dust mixed with much useless
rubbisli. Of 30 satires which he wrote,
only some fragments have been preserved
in various editions, of which those of Dou-
sa (Leyden, 1597, 4to. ; Amsterdam, 1661,
4to. ; and Padua, 1735} ore esteemed the
best In his lifetime, these satires had an
uncommon popularity. He died at Naples
about 103 B. C.— There was also another
Lucilius, who wrote a didactic poem,^Z«Cna,
edited by Corallus (Le Clerc), Amster-
dam, 1803.

Luciif A, a surname of Juno (according
to some, of Diana ; according to others,
the name of a daughter of Jupiter and
Juno), is derived eitiier from Ivcus (grove,
because her temple stood in a grove), or
Ivx (hght, because children are brought to
light at birth), or fix>m lueeo (I shine, as
denoting the moon). Her festival waa
celebrated March 1, on which occasion
the inatrons assembled in her templOi
adonied it with flowera, and imploiea a

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14!l

LUCINA— LUCRETIU8L

happy and hnre poaterit^y fecundity and
au easy delivery. (See imma.]

LucKiTER, Nicholas; a baron of the
German empire, bom at Campen in Ba-
varia, who became a general in the French
army. In the leven years* war, having
displayed considerable talents as a com-
mander of hussars, he was, on the occur-
rence of peace, invited to enter into the
service of France, in which he obtained
the rank of lieutenant-general. In 1789,
he sided with the revolutionary party, and,
from the beginnlbg of 1791, be held vari-
ous military employments. His age, ex-
perience and reputation occasioned his
beinf placed in situations to which his
abiliues were • unequal. In December,
1791, he received the bdton of marshal ;
and a few montlis afler, he was appointed
generalissimo of the French armies. After
having made his appearance at Paris,
where he enjoyed a short-lived popularity,
and showed a disposition to support the
king's constitutional authority, he went to
take the command of his army at Stras-
burg. After August 10, 1793, he lost the
chief command. He went to Paris to jus-
tify himself before the national conven-
tioD, in January, 1793, and was ordered to
retire wherever lie thought proper. Hav-
ing some time afler demanded payment
of a pension due to him, he was arrested
and put to death.

LucKNOw; a city of Bengal, capital of
a drear of the same name, in Oude, situ-
ated on the Goomty ; 95 miles N. N. VV.
of Allahabad, and 215 S. £. of Delhi;
Ion. 80° SS' E. ; lat 26° 24' N. ; popula-
tion, in 1800, estimated at upwonls of
300,000 ; since that time it is thought to
have diminished ; it was formerly esti-
mated as high as 500,000. It is a very
ancient city, and the residence of the gov-
ernors or nabobs of Oude. It is by do
means a handsome town, the streets being
very irregular and narrow ; some of the
houses of brick, but most of them mud
walls, covered widi tiles. Tlie situation
is bad, and the soil is a white sand, which,
in hot weather, is driven about by the
wind, and pervades eveiy thing. The
gilt domes or the mosques and the mauso-
feum of Azoph ud Dowleh give it a gay
appearance at a distance. In the vicinitv
m the city stand the houses of the British
resident and other European inhabitants.
The Goomty is navigable for middling-
aized vessels at all seasons.

Lu^oN, or LU90NIA; the principal of
^ the Philippine islands, in the Eastern seas,
.belon^ng to Spain, sometimes called Ma^
om Us capital ; between lat. 13° and

19° N.; km. 120^ to I94<> E. ; about 400
miles from north to south, and (torn dO to
120 in breadth ; square miles, about 65,000.
The country is generally mountainous, an
elevated ridge extending the whole length.
There are several volcanoes^ and earth-
quakes are frequent, and sometimes de-
structive; those of 1650, 1754 and 1824,
are still remembered with terror. The cli-
mate is moist, but temperate for the lati-
tude, and the soil fertile. Cotton, indigo,
sugar, tobacco, coffee, and other tropical
produce, grow in great abundance ; also
the richest fruits of the East and West
Indies. There are 40 different sorts of
palm-trees, excellent cocoas and cassia,
wild cinnamon, wild nutmegs, ebony, san-
dal-wood, and excellent timber for ship-
building. Gold is found upon the moun-
tains, and is washed down by niina. Cat-
tie abound ; civet cats are common, and
auibeiigris is Uirown upon the coasts in
great quantities. The commeree is con-
feiderable ; the principal exports are indi-
co, coffee, pepper, rice, sugar and pearl&
In 1627, or 81 vessels engaged in this
trade, 29 were Spanish and 21 American.
The population is 1,376,000, and is com-
posed of Spaniards, who are few, aborigi-
nal blacks, Malays, Metis and Creolesi
The negroes are chiefly in tHe interior,
and are in a veiy barbarous state. The
Malays, among whom the principal tribe
is the TajRilB, are in part independent, and
in part subject to the Spaniards. Brave,
active, gay and industrious, when not ru-
ined by the tyranny of the Europeans,
they are rendered by oppression cniel and
rapacious. Lu^on was discovered by
Magellan, in 1521, and conquered by the
Spaniards in 1571. (See Pkiiippines.)

LucRETiA ; a Roman lady of dtstin-
cuished virtue, whose ill treatment by
Sexuis Tarquin led to the destruction of
the kingdom, and the formation of the re-
public of Rome. She was the vnfe of
Collatinus, a near relation of Tarquin,
king of Rome. Sextus Tarquinius, who
contrived to become a guest in the ab-
sence of her husband, whose kinsman he
was, found means to reach her chamber
in the middle of the night, and threatened,
unless she gratified his desires, to stab her,
kill a slave, and place him by her side, and
then swear that he had slain them both in
the act of adultery. The fear of infamy
succeeded. • She afterwards summoned
her husband, fiUher and kindred, and, after
acquainting them with the whole transac-
tion, drew a dagger, and stabbed henelf
to the heart. (See BriUuSf Luehu Junim.)

LuCRSTiua, Titus Cani% a Ronwii

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LUCRETIUS— LUCULLU&

143

knifi^ prolMblf bom 95 R C^ is sup-
posed to have studied the Epicurean phi-
losophy at Athene He is said to have
been made insane by a philtre, and, in his
hicid intenrals, to have produced several
worka^ but to have committed suicide in
his 44th year. We poesesa, of his composi-
tion, a didactic poem, in six books,l>e/2erufii
MMtitrOi in which he exhibits the prin-
ciples of the Epicurean philosophy with
an original imagination, and in forcible
language. The unpoetical subject of the
poem must, of itself make it, on the
whole, a failure ; but parts, notwithstand-
inp^, such as the description of human
misery, the force of the passions, the ter-
rible pestilence of Greece, &c^ demon-
strate that Lucretius was possessed of great
. poetical talents. By reason of his anti-
quated terms^ and the new meanings
which he gave to words, Quinctilian him-
self regarded his poem as veiy hard to be
understood. The principal editions are
those of Creech (Oxford, 1695 ; London,
1717; Basle, 1770, &c.), of Havercamp
(Leyden, 17S^ 2 vols., 4to.), and of Wake-
field (London, 1796, 3 vols^ 4to.). A
raaateriy German translation, in the metre
of the original, has been executed by
Knebel (Leipsic, 1821, 4to.). The Italian
version oy Marchetti, and the French by
Ponserville, are also good. The poem has
also been translated into English by Creech,
by Busby and by Good. Good's transla-
tion is accompanied by the text of Wake-
field, and by elaborate annotations.

LncuLLus, Lucius Licinius; the con-
queror of Mithridates. Being chosen
<n£Ztf evndis, at the same time with his
brother Marcus Licinius, he manifested, in
the Manian war, abilitv and courage. In
the civil wars of Syua and Marius, he
sided with tlie former. In the year of
the city 679^ he was appointed consul and
commander of the army which was to
proceed to Cilicia agamst Mithridates.
Having already served against Mithridates
with an inferior command durine his
questorship, he was acquainted wim this
coimtry. He first sought to restore the
ancient discipline, which the Roman sol-
diers had foi^tten among the voluptuous
Asiatics. Mithridates hiul already made
a victorious beginning of the campaign
by a naval battle with the consul Aureliiis
Cotta, the colleague of Lucullus. Lucul-
lus was therefore compeUed to hasten the
attack of his land forces. But when he
approQched the army of Mithridates, and
ascertained its strength, he deemed it ju-
dick>us to avoid a decisive batde,and con-
tented himself with cutting off the king's

communications. Mithridates now ad-
vanced with a considerable force to be-
8iej;e the city of Cyzicum, the key of
Asia, then in the possession of the Ro-
mans. LucuUus, however, defeated his rear-
guard on their march thither, and com*
C3lled the king to give up his attempt
ucuUus now advanced to the coasts of
the Hellespont, prepared a fleet, and van-
ouished the squadron of Mithridates near
the island of Lemnos. This victory ena-
bled him to drive all the other squadrons
of Mithridates from the Archipelago.
The generals of Lucullus subdued, mean-
while, all Bithynia and Paphlagonia. Lu-
cullus, again at the head uf his army, con-
3uered various cities of Pontus, and, al-
louffh overcome by Mithridates in a bat-
tle, he soon acquired such advantages,
that he finally broke up the hostile army,
and Mithridates himself sought protection
in Armenia. Lucullus now changed
Pontus into a Roman province. Tigranes
refusing to surrender Mithridates to the
Romans, Lucullus marched against Ar-
menia, and vanquished Tigranes. Mithri-
dates, however, contend^ with various
fortune, till Lucullus was prevented from
continuing the war against nim effectuaBy,
by the mutiny of his soldieni, who accus-
ed him, perhaps not unjustly, of avarice
and covetousness. In Rome, the dissatis-
fection of the soldiers towards Lucullus
was found well-grounded ; he was de-
prived of the chief command and recalled.
He was received, however, by the patri-
cians, with eveiy mark of r^pect, and ob-
tained a splendid triumph. From this
tune, Lucullus remained a private individ-
ual, spending in profuse voluptuousness
the immense riches which he had brought
with him from Asia, without, however,
abandoning the more noble and serious
occupations of a cultivated mind. During
his residence as questor in Macedonia,
and as general in the Mithridatic wars, he
had become intimate with the most dis«
tinguished philosopheis. His principal
instructer was the academician AntiochuSi
who accompanied him in some of his
campaigns. Lucullus was therefore most
interested in die Platonic system. Afler
his return, he pursued the study of philos-
ophy, induced many scholare to come to
Rome, and allowed them free access to his
house. He also founded, bv means of
Tyrannion, whom he had taken prisoner
in the Mithridatic war, an extensive libra-
ry, which was fi^ee to every one, and of
which Cicero made' diligent use. His
example, also, induced other distinguished
Romans to draw learned men to Rome al

Digitized by VjOOQIC

114

Lt7CULLV&--LUODinn;H.

their ezpeiMe. ' At kat, he 10 leid to have
lost his reaeon in oonsequenoe of a philtre,
adminiatered by his fifeedmao CaUisthenea,
80 that it was neceasBry to place him un-
der the guacdianahip of his brother. He
soon aft^ died, in his 66th or 68th year.
Lucuilus first transplanted the cherry-tree
to Rome from Cerasus, in Pontus; 680
yean after the building of the city.

Luddites ; a name given, some years
since, in England, to the rioters who de-
stroyed the machinery in the manufactur-
ing towns. They were so called from
one of their leaders, named Ludd.

LuDEN, Henry, was bora at Lockstadt,
in the duchy of Bremen, in 1780 ; studi&d
at G6tttngeD ; In 1806, was made extraor-
dinary professor of philosophy at Jena,
and, in 1810, professor of history. Besides
numerous historical, philosophical and po-
litical treatises in periodical publications, he
has written the lives of Thomasius, Grotius,
and sir W. Temple, and other valuable
works, among which are Ansichte des
RheMundes (1806); Mgemdnt Ge-
achiehie der Vwker und Staaten des JSUer^
tkuma (3d edition, 1824); ^Ugemeine Gt-
schichte der VMhar und Suiaten dea MUelal'
tors (1821); and Gesch. derDeutsehm VU-
ker (3d vol., 1827). In his Nemesis, or
Political and Historical Journal, he attack-
ed the statements of Kotzebue, in his
*^ secret, dangerous, and, in part, unfounded
report." He superintended the publica-
tion of the duke of Saxe-Weimar's Trav-
els in the U. States.

Ludlow, Edmund, a distinguished
leader of the republican party in the civil
wars of Charles I, the eldest son of sir
Henry Ludlow, was bora about 1602, at
Maiden Bradley, in the county of VVUts,
and received his education at Oxford,
whence he removed to the Temple, in or-
der to study the law. He served with
distinction in the parliamentary army, and
when "the self-denying ordinance** took
place, he remained out of any ostensible
situation, until chosen member for Wilt-
shire, in the place of his fiither. At this
time, the machinations of Cromwell be-
coming visible, he was opposed by Ludlow
with firmness and openness. Witli a view
of establishing a republic, he joined the ar-
my against the narliament^ when the latter
voted the king's concessionB a basis for
treaty, and was also one of Cliarles'a
judges. With a view of removing him,
Cromwell caused him to be nominated
(general of horse in Ireland, where he
joined the army under Ireton, and acted
vrith great vigor and abili^. When
Cramwell was declared proteotor, Lud-

low used all his inflaence with the army
against him, on which account he was
recalled, and put under arrest Although
he refiised to enter into any engagement
not to act against the goverament, he was
at length allowed to so to London, where,
in a conversation with Cromwell himself^
he avowed his republican principles, and,
refusing all security or en^Bgement for
submission, he retired into E^x, where
he remained until the death of the pro-
tector. When Richard Cromwell sup
ceeded, he joined the army party at Wal
lingford-house, aud was instrumental in
the restoration of the long parliament, in
wiiich he took his seat. The restoration
was now rapidly approachuig, and, find-
ing the republicans unable to resist it, he
Tjuitted the country, and proceeded to Ge-
neva, whence he afterwards, with many
more fugitives of the party, took refuge at
Lausanne, where IJsle was a<«assinated
by some English royalists. Similar at-
tempts were made on the lives of Ludlow
and others ; but bis caution, and the vigi-
lance of the magistracy of Berae, protect-
ed him, and he passed the remainder of
his life at Vevay, with the exception of a
brief visit to England after the revolution,
from which he was driven by a motion in
parliament for his apprehension, by sir
Edward Seymour, the leader of the tory
party. He closed his life in exile, in 1G93,
being then in his 73d year. , Ludlow was
one of the purest and most honorable
charocters on the republican side, without
any fanaticism or hypocrisy. His Me-
moirs contain many particulars in relation
to the general history of the times: they
are written in a manly, unaffected style,
and are replete with valuable matter.

LcFF ; the order of the helmsman to
put the tiller towards the lee-skle of tlie
ship, in order to make the ship sail nearer
the direction of the wind. '^

LuGDUTvuH ; the Latin name of several
cities; L a colony of the Romans, also
called LagdunuSy the present L1/0T19 (q. v.),
though not on precisely the same spoL
2. Lugdunum BaUojorum (Lugd. BaL); a
city in Gallia Bel^ca, at a later period, in
the middle ages, odled Leitliis ; at present,
Leydm (q. v.); hence, on the title-page
of clashes, Lugduni Batavorttmj many of
which are very fine editions. 3. Lugdu-
num; a city of the Convenae, in Gallia
Aquitania, most probably the present Sl
Beitrand. 4. Lugdunenaia (Gallia) was
the name given, in the time of Augustus, to
a part of Ctesar's Gallia Celtica. There
were Lugdunenaia Prma^ afterwards Lu-
mmaia ; Lugdumniia SecundOf afterwarda

Digitized by VjOOQIC

uaamaiu^ujULY.

14ft

_, , Litgdrnfomi 7Mi% after-
wards 7>NMiney iwiiMe,.^iy<m and Britta*
ty ; Li^g)rfimeiMu Qicaria, or jSntomO} com-
praiiig put of Champagne, south of the
Jfaroe, Uie aouthera part of Ide de Fraocey
Chartnun, Perche and Orieamuiu»

Ln«oER ; a vessel carrying three masts,
with a runiung bowsprit, upon which she
sets lug-sails, and sometimes has tep-«ai]s
adapted to them.

Luo-Saii. ; a quadrUateral sail bent up-
on a yard, which han^ obliquely to the
mast, at one third of its length. These
are more particularly used in the frorco-
longasj navigated by the Spaniards in the
MMliterranean.

Luke ; author of one of the Gospels^
which 18 distinguished for fullness, accu-
racy, and traces of extensive information ;
also of the Acts of the Aposdes, in which
he gives a methodical account of th» ori-
gin of the Ghrisuan church, and, particu-
larly, of the travels of the apostle PauL
Though theae two books were designed
merely for bis friend Theophilus, they
Koon attained a canonical authority, and
were publicly read in the churches. Con-
cerning the circumstances of the life of
this evangelist, nothing certain is known,
except that he was a Jew by birth, was a
contemporary o^ the aposdes, and could
have heard accounts or the life of Jesus
trom the mouths of eye-wimesses, and
was for several years a companiou of the
apostle Paul, in his travels ; so that, in the
Acts of the Aposdes, he relates what he
himselfbad seen and participated in. The
conjecture that he was a physician is more
probable than the tradition which makes
him a painter, and which attributes to hun
an old picture of Christ, preserved at
Rome. On account of this latter tradi-
tion, however, he is the patron saint of
painters, and a celebrated academy of
these artists, at Rome^ bears his name.

Luke of Lktdeii, one of the founders
of modem painting in the North, stands
by the side of Dtor, Holbein and Kra-
oach, at the head of the old German
school, though, striedy, he does not be-
loug to Germany. He was bom at Ley*
den, 1494, and enioyed, in early life, the
iDstruction of his mther, Hugo Jacob, and
afterwards that of Cornelius £ngelbrecht»
sen, an eminent painter, and scholar of
Van Eyfc. At the early a^ of nine, he
began to engrave, and, in his twelfth year,
astonished all judges, by a painting, in
water-colors^ of St Hubert. In his 15th
year, he prtiduced several pieces, compos-
ed and engraved by himself, among which
ifae Trial of St* Anthony, arid the Conver-

vou viifc 13

rion of St Patd, IB VQgttd to <
characteristic expression, drapeiy, and
management of the nrnver, are iiKMlels,
After this, he ezecutea many paintiny in
oil, water-cokNTs, and on glass ; likewist a
multitude of enmvings, which spread his
ftune widely. Be fornied a fiiendly inti-
macy with the celebrated John of Alabusa
and Albert Durer, who visited him in
Leyden. His unremitted application in-
jured his health ; and his anxious fiiends
persuaded him to travel through the Neth-
erlands. But his hypochondria was not
removed. He i magined himself poisoned
by envious painters, and hardly left his
bed for almost six yeara; during which
time be labored uninterruptedly, and rose
to the highest rank in his art He died in
1533, m his 40di year. This artist is ex-
cellent in almost all parts of his art, thouch
he could not entirely divest himself of tne
taste which characterized the childhood
of painting. His designs are striking, in-
genious and varied ; his grouping judi-
cious and natural ; character appean in all
^lis figures, particularly in the heads, thouffli
this character cannot be called noble.
The situations and attitudes of his figures
are veiy various, which is the more re*
markable, from the great number of per-
sons often found m his paintincs. Hisdraw-
ing is correct, yet not ideal, out fashioned
after the models of the country in which he
lived. His drapery is, indeed, mostly ar-
ranged with troth, but without taste, heavy,
and deformed by many small folds.
His coloring is pleasing and natural, but
the aerial perspective is neglected; and
there is a certain harshness, not to be mis-
taken, peculiar to that rieriod of the art
Notwithstanding his high finish, he paint-
ed easily. His engravings and wood-cutH
bear evidence of a most careful and
steady management of the graver. They
are very rare, and highly prized, particu-
larly those in which he selected the same
subject with Albert Diirer, in order to
compete with him. The friends often
shared their ideas and compositions; but
Luke ranks below Diirer. The fullest
and most beautiful collection of engravings
by this master, is in the library at Vien->
na. His paintings are scattered about in
many galleries ; the principal in Leyden*
Vienna, Dresden, Munich, and in the Tiv-
buna at Florence.

LiTixT, Raymoiid, adistinguisbed scho*
bstic of the tlurteenth cenuiry, author of
the method called ,^ LuUumOf taught
throughout Europe^ during the fouiteentfa,
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, was bom
in Miu^'i^ ^ ^^^^^ ^^^ having besA

Digitized by VjOOQIC

140

LDLLT— LDNA.

attached tti die gi^ ooort of James 1 of
Amgon, be became filled with pioua
fteliogfl^ and, at about the age of 30, retir-
ed to a solitude, and, for the purpose of
eotiTertiag infidels,, began the study of
theokMnr. Encouraged by visions, he un-
dertook the task by studying the E^astem
languages, and invented his new method,
or Ar9 dtmonatraivoa VeritaHay for the pur-
pose of proving that the mysteries of niith
were not contrary to reason. He then visited
Rome and France, in the schools of which
he taught ; and, while at Montpellier, com-
posed his ^8 incentwa Veritatia, in wBich
he developes and simplifies his method.
Passing over into Africa, for the purpose
of convincing the Mohammedan doctors
•f the truth of Christianity, he narrowly
escaped with his life ; and, on his return
to Europe, wrote his Tabula freneralisj a
sort of key to his fortner works, and, in
1298, obtained from Philip tlie Fair a pro-
fessorship at Paris. From this period
dates the establishment of his doctrine in
Europe. His ^rs expottUiva and Arbor
SeienHiB are his other principal works on
this subject. A secona visit to Africa, for
the purpose of converting the disciples of
Averroes, resulted in his banishment from
that re^on ; but he returned a third time,
and was stoned to death, about 1315.
The Lullian method was taught and com-
mi*nted on for several centuries in Europe.
The principal commentators are Leffevre-
d'Etaples, Alstedius, Sehonde, &c. (See
Deeerando, IKstoire comparee des SysUmea
de Pkilosophie,)

LuLLV, Jean Baptists; bom at Flor-
ence, of obscure parents, in 1634. As a
child, he exhibited a passionate fondness
for music. The chevalier Guise, who had
been commissioned by Mile, de Montpen-
sier to send her an Italian page, struck
with his talent, engaged him, and despatch-
ed him to Paris in his lOUi year. The
lady, however, was so litde pleased by bis
appearance, that she sent him into her
kitchen, where he remained some time in
the humble capacity of an under-scullion.
His musical talent l)ecoming accidentally
known to a gentleman about the court, his
rppresentations procured him to be placed
under a master. He now rose rapidly, till
he obtained the appointment of musician
to the court. His performance soon at-
tracted the notice of the king, by whose
direction, a new band, called kspetita Vt-
oUmSj was formed, and Lully placed at the
head of it, in 1660; about which period,
he composed the music to the then fiivor-
He amusements of the court, called baUeta^
consisting of dancing, intermixed with

■oging and reckstife. In 1€7Q» Lully
was made joint-director of the French
opera, estabushed the precedinff year, on
the plan of that at Venice, which situatioQ
he filled till his decease, in 1687. Lully «
contributed much to the improvement of
French music, and is said to have been
the inventor of the overture.

Lumbago (from lumbua, the loin); a
rheumatic affection of the muscles about
the loins. (See RhewnaHam,)

Lumpers ; laborers employed to load
and unload a merchant ship when in
harbor.

LuMP-FiSH {cydopterua, Lin.). These
fish are very remarkahle for the manner in
which their ventral fins are arranged.
They are united by a membrane so as to
form a kind of oval and concave disk.
By means of this apparatus, these fish are
enaV d to adhere with great force to any
6ul)6Uince to which they apply themselves.
This has been proved by placing one of
them in a bucket of water, when it fixed
itself so firmly, that, on taking the i\>h by
the tail, the whole vessel and its contents
were hfled from the groimd, although it
held some gallons. {Brit. Zoology.) The
largest of the genus is the C luwpua : this
is about nine inches Ion?, and sometimes
weighs seven pounds. The back is arch-
ed*and sharp, of a blackish color, varie-
gated with brown. The l)ody is covered
^vith sharp, black tubercles ; and on each
side, there are three rows of large, bony
scales, and another on the back. The
great resort of this species is in the north -
em seas, about tlie coast of Greenland.
Great numbei's of them are devoured by
the seals, who swallow all but the skins,
Quantities of which, thus emptied, are seen
noatinff about in the spring months, wbeu
these fish approach the land for the pur-
pose of spawning. It is said that the spotR
where the seals carry on their deprecia-
tions can be readily distinguished by the
smoothness of the water. Crontz says
that the inhabitants of the barren tracts of
Greenland, who are obliged to depend, for
the greatest part of their subsistence, ou
fish, eagerly avail themselves of the arri-
val of th is species. The roe is remarkably
large : when boiled, it forms an exceed-
ingly gross and oily food, of which the
Greenlanders are very fond. The flesh is
sofl and insipid.

Lump-lac. (See Coccua^ end of tlie
article.)

Luna (the moon), amone the Greeks,
Selene, was the daughter of Hjrperion and
Terra (G8Ba),and was the same, according
to some my thologists, as Diana, (q. ▼.) She

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LUNA— PEACE OF LUNEVILLE.

147

was worshipped by the ancient inhabitants
of the earth with many superstitious forms
and ceremonies. It was supposed that
magicians and encbanteia, particularly
tbooB of Thessaly, had an uncontrollable
power over the moon, and that thev could
diaw her down from heaven at pleasure,

Sr tlie mere force of their incantations,
er eclipaes, according to their opinions,
proceeded firom thence, and, on that ac-
count, it was usual to beat drums and
cymbals, to ease her labors, and to render
the power of magic less efiectuaL (See
Hdios.)

Lunar Caustic. (See NUraU of Sil-
ver.)

Lunar Year. (See Year.)
Lunatics, in medicine. (See MenUd
Deran^emeni.)
lAaiatics, in law. (See JSTon Compo8.)
Lund, or Lunden ; a town in Sweden,
province of Skonen, and government of
Malniohus, 5 miles from me Baltic ; Ion.
13P E.; lat. 55° 44' N.; [wpulalion, 3224.
It is a bishop's see, and contains a uuiver-
Bity, founded in 1068, by Charles IX,
which has 15 professors, a botanic garden,
an anatomical theatre, a cabinet of curios-
ities, an observatoiy, and a library of
40,000 volu mes. The number of students,
in 1627, was 631.

LuNEBURo; formerly a principality of
Lower Saxonv, at present a province of
Hanover, with 4325 square miles, and
264,000 inhabitants. The Elbe forms its
boundary on tlie north and north-east.
Luneburg is a vast plain of sand, interrupt-
ed here and there by deep moors and for-
ests of pine. The' marshes on the rivers
are, however, wonderfully pi-oductive, but
they are better fitted for pasture, and the
euluvation of garden vegetables, than for
tillage. The rivers of the province all
flow into tlie Elbe or the Weser, the high-
land which divides the basins of those two
rivers being tlie great Luneburg heath.
The dikes, which protect the country from
the inimdatious of tlie Elbe, are enor-
mously expensive. About seven tenths
of the whole province are incapable of
cultivation, and com is not produced in
quantities sufficient to supply the inhabit-
ants. Flax is extensively raised, and the
cattle are numerous and of a good de-
scription. Bees are kept on the heaths,
and the fisheries in the rivers are impor-
tant. Salt, wool, linen, beeswax and
wooden-wares, are the chief exports.
The great commercial road from llam-
buig to Hanover and Brunswick, runs
thrMwh tfie wovince, and the towns of
Lunmug and Ceile cany on a oop»dei»-

Me commisBion business. Lunebuiv was
originally an allodial estate of the house
of Brunswick, and gave its name to one
of the branches of the family. (See Bntiu-
tDick.}--Lunehurgj the capital of the prov-
ince, is an old town, with about 11,300
inhabitants, situated on the Ilmeiiau,
which is navigable to this place for small
vessels. The Kalkberg is a curious gyp-
seous rock, 118 feet high, on which are
remains of ancient fortifications, and in
the quarries of which is found the rare
mineral boracite. The salt springs are
capable of yielding 2000 tons of salt a
week. The transit trade between Hanover
and Brunsvnck is extensive, a large num-
ber of horses being brought to Lunebunr
annually, and is estimated at 15,000,000
rix dollars.

Lunette, in the art of fortification ; a
very vague expression, which, in its origi-
nal signification, probal)ly comprised every
detached work built in the form of an an-
gle, and consisting of but two faces. It
was aflerwards used in a more limited
sense, to denote, 1. Small, ffenerally ir-
regular, works, with or vntnout flanks,
that are placed in the principal ditch, be-
fore the ravelins, or other out-woriis, for
tlie purpose of covering such places of the
chief rampart, as may be seen from the
open field, or of defending from the side
such points as, through a mistake in the
original plan of the fortifications, were
left unprotected, the guns from the bas-
tions not being Mb to reach them. 2. Ad-
vanced works on or before the glacis,
sometimes constructed hi the form of an
an^le, sometimes in the form of a bastion.
This kind of lunettes, skilfully disposed
on the weak fronts of a place, and arrang-
ed in one or two lines, so as to flank one
another, may check the approach of the
enemy for a considerable time, by obliging
him to make his trenches at a greater dis-
tance than he would otherwise have done,
and subjecting him to losses in the capture
of each lunette. Particular attention must
be paid to dispose them in such a manner
as to render it imposmble for the enemy to
attack two lunettes at the same time.

Luneville ; an open city of Lorraine,
depmtment of the Meurthe, in a firuitfiii
plain, with a casUe, 3 churches, and 12^8^
mhabitants. In 1785, Stanislaus Lecz^
ski, king of Poland, to whom Lorraine
and Bar had been granled, resided hers.
Lat 48° 3y N.J km. 6° SO' E*

LunemlUf Peace ^; concluded Feb. 9,
1801, between Austria (also in the naiiMi
of the QennaD empire) and the French
lepublic, i^ioii the iWBiaf the pctoa of

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148

PEACE OF LUNEVILLE-LUNQS.

Canpo-Formio. (<!•▼•} -Belgium and the
left bank of the Rhuie were ceded to
Fnnoe ; Milan and Mantua to the Ciaalpioe
(q. ▼.) r^Hjblic ; Venice, and the country
as ftr aa the Adige, Istria and Dalmatia,
te Austria. The princes on the left bonk
of the Rhine were to be indenuiified by
territories within the empire. Auistria
ceded the Frickthal, and the suip of land
between Basle and Zurzach, to France,
who, in 1802, inve thein to Switzerland.
Austria ceded Brisgau to the duke of Mo-
dena, and consented to the erection of tlie
kingdom of Etruria, for which the grond-
duke of TuBca^ was to be indemnified
in Germany. The valley of the Rhine
formed the boundary of France. The
naTigation of the river waa declared fre^
and remained so until 1804, when toll
was imposed for the complete indemnifi-
cation of several members of the empire.
LuNos ; the organs of respiration m the
mammalia (man, quadrupecfs, and the ce-
taceous animals), birds and reptiles. The
lungs are situated in the chest, and are
<hvided into two parts, called lobu. They
are enveloped in a delicate and transparent
membnne,derived from the pleura,through
which they have the appearance of net-
work, and are connected with the spioe by
the pleura, with the neck by the windpipe,
and with the heart by the roots or the
pulmonary artery and veins. In their
specific gravity, they are the lightest of all
the animal organs, even when exhausted
of air ; hence their name of lights. To
the touch, they are soft, spongy and elos^
tic In their internal structure, they are
composed of an infinite number of mem-
branous, celled blood-vessels, nerves and
lymphatics, all connected by cellular sub-
stance. The cells communicate with each
other, but have no communication with
the cellular substance : small tubes arise
ih>m them, which are finally united into
one large tube fix>m each lobe ; and these
two at length join to form the windpi})e.
The blood-vessels called the pulmonary
vessels are destined to distribute the blood
through the cells, for the purpose of sub-
jecting it to the action of the air fsee
Mm^ and Heart) ; while the bronchial
vessels are intended to supply the blood
which nourishes the lungSr (For the ac*
tion of these organs in respiration, see
RemraHon.) The cetacea (whales, seals,
&C.) breathe by lungs, and are therefore
obliged to ascend, at intervals, to the sur-
ftce of the water, to obtain a supply of at-
mospheric air. The respiratory onfice, in
these animak^ is not situated at the ex-
<rMDi^ of the nouty but on the top of the

head. In birds^ the lungs are smaller tfum
in quadrupeds^ but they have air diatrib
uted throughout their muscular system
and in the cavities of the bones. — ^The
lungs afford a means of ascertaining
whether a new-bom child, which is found
dead, was or was not living, when bom, —
a question often of great importance in
forensic medicine. The lungs of the ui-
fimt are placed in water, to see whetlier
they will swim or sink. Before birth, the
lungs are dark red, contracted into a small
place within the cavity of the breast, firm,
and specifically heavier than water. They
thereiore sink in water, whether they aiv
entire or cut into pieces ; and when cut,
no air-bubbles come forth, either in or out
of the water, nor does much blood ap-
pear. But if the babe has lived after
birth, and therefore breathed, air has en*
tered the lungs, has thus enlarged the cav-
ity of the chest, and the lungs themselves
are expanded, appear of a loose, spongy
texture, of a pale red color, cover the heart,
and fill the chest They then swim in wa-
ter, as well in connexion with the heart as
without it, as well entire as in pieces. If cut,
a peculiar sound is audible ; air proceeds
fit)m them, and rises, if they are pressed
under water, in small bubbles. From the
incisions in the lungs, red, and, generally,
foamy blood issues. Against this test, it
has been objected — 1. that air may be
found in the lungs, though the in&nt
never breathed. This could happen, how*
ever, only {a) fix)m air having bcMin blown
into them ; but, in this case, the chest of
the infant is no^mched, very little blood is
to be found in the lungs, and it is not
bright red nor foamy : (6} from putre-
faction ; but, in this case, tne other parts
of the body would also be affected by pu-
trefaction: the lungs are not expanded,
pale-red air-bubbles show themselves only
on the surface, and not in tiie interior
substance, unless the highest degree of pu-
trefaction has taken place. 2. It is said
that the child may have breathed, and
therefore lived, without air being found in
the lungs. This is not proved, and is at
variance with the received ideas of the
manifestation of life. 3. That part of the
lungs may swim, another ma^sink. This
can happen only with lungs m a diseased
state, and would only prove an attempt of
the infant to breathe, without the possi-
bility of living. 4 That a child may have
lived without breathinff ; but this state of
apparent death cannot be called life : life
cannot be supposed without breath. If
all precautions are taken, all attending
ciicuiiifUiices ooDsideredt tba exteniiu

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LUNGS— LUSTRATION.

149

appeaniMse of the infimt well observed,
and the fltate of the other iDtestineB exam-
ined, the fiireji^uig test may be considered
as sufficient for the decision of the Ques-
tion, whether a child has lived after birth
or noL Another kind of test by means
of the lungs has been proposed, which is
ibuuded on the proportion of the weight
of the whole body to a liing which nas
breathed, and one which has not; and
still another, which rests on the circum-
ference of the chest before and after
breathing has commenced; but both ore
more complicated, troublesome, and less
oertain than the former one.

LuPEKCALiA ; a yearly festival observed
at Rome, tlie 15th of February, iu Jionor
of tlie god Pan, sumamed Lupercus (&om
litpu9y wolf, and arceo^ to diive away), the
defender finom wolves. It was usual first to
sacrifice two goats and a dog, and to touch,
with the bloody knife, the foreheads of
two iUustrious youths, who always were
obliged to smile while they were touched.
The blood was wiped away with soft
wool dipped in milk. After this, the skins
of tiie victims were cut into thongs, with
which whips were mmie for the youllis.
With these whips tlie youths ran about
the streets, all naked except the middle,
and whipped those they met. Women,
in particular, were fond of receiving the
Wjcs, as it was believed that they remov-
ed barrenness, and eased the pains of
child-birth. This excursion iu the streets
of Rome was performed by naked youths,
because Pan is always repi'esented naked,
and a goat was sacrificed because tliat
deity was supposed to have the feet of
goats. A dog was added as necessary for
the shepherd. The priests which officiat-
ed at the Lupercalia were called Luperci,
Lupine ; a genus of leguminous plants,
containing about 30 species, which are her-
baceous or frutesceut, bearing petiolate and
usually digitate leaves, and lar^, handsome
flowere, which are disposed m a tenninul
raceme. The lupinusperennis grows wi K I in
sandy places, from Cfanada to Florida, and
bears beautiful blue flowers. It has been
cultivated in Europe for more than 150
years. We have eight other species, and
probably more, in North Amerira, several
of which are only found westward of the
Rocky moimtains. Two of our southern
species are remarkable for having simple
leave&

LoFULirr, M. Planche first ascertained
that the three active ingredients of the
hop, viz. the oil, nesn and bitter principle,
reside in the brilliant yellow grains scat-
tered over Uie calicinal scales of the conea,
13»

which serve as their eoTekm. Doctor
Ives of New York, and MM. Paven and
Chevalier, have since confirmed this posi-
tion. Tins matter, when insulated, is of a
golden yellow color, in little grains, with-
out consistence, which attach themselves
to the fingers, and render them rough. It
has a penetrating aromatic odor : 200 parts
of it afforded, 1. water ; 2. essential oil ;
3. carbonic acid; 4. suhacetate of am-
monia ; 5. traces of osmazome ; 6. traces
of futiT matter ; 7. gum ; 8. malic acid ;
9. malate of lime ; 10. bitter matter, 25
parts ; 11. a well characterized resin, 105
parts ; 12. silica, 8 parts ; 13^ traces of car-
l)onate, muriate and sulphate of potash ;

14. carbonate and phosphate or lime ;

15. oxide of iron and traces of sulphur.
The bitter matter, introduced into the
stomach, destroys appetite.

LusATiA (in German, LcnuUz) ; aa ex^^
tensive country, bordering on Bohemia to
the south, Meissen to the west, Branden-
burg to the north, and Sileda to the east*
It was formerly a mareraviate, and was
divided into Upper and Lower Lusatia,
with a superficial area of 4250 square
miles, the population of which is about
500,000. With the excepdon of the circle
of Kottbus, which had &llen into tlie
hands of the house of Brandenburg in
1550, Lusatia wqp granted to the elector
of Saxony, in 1635. In 1815, all Lower
Lusatia Q940 square miles), with a large
part of Upper Lusatia, was ceded to Prus-
sia (in all 3200 square miles, with 294,700
inhabitants), and was annexed to the ffov-
emments of Frankfort and Liegnitz, The
part of Upper Lusatia, which remained to
Saxony (1050 square miles, with 195,000
inhabitants), now forms the circle of tliat
name, compiising the eastern part of tho
kingdom ; chief town, Bautzen f q, v.). It
is not very fertile, hardly supplvui^ half
of the consumption of^ its inhabitants.
Flax is raised in all parts, but great (quan-
tities are imported for the use of the
manufactures. Linen, woollen and cot-
ton are the principal manufactures, (Sect
Saxony,)

LusiAD. (See Camoens.)

Lusitama; a part of Spain, whose
extent and situation have not been accu-
rately defined by the ancients. Accord-
ing to some descriptions, it extended from
the Tagus to the sea of Calabria* Tho
inhabitants were warlike, and the Romans
conquered tliem with great difficulty.
They generallv lived upon plunder, and
were rude and unpolished in their man-
ners. (See Spmnj a«d Portugal.)

Lv3TRATioif *, purification ; m particular

Digitized by VjOOQIC

150

LUSTRATION— LUTHER.

the solema paiificatioD or consecration
of the Roman people, by means of an
expiatoiy aacrince (aaer^eiunt liutrak)^
which was performed after every censua.
(See Camu.) The name mav be derived
m>m luere, in the sense of sclvere, for, on
this occasion, aU public taxes were paid
by the farmers-general to the censor; or
mm huirare (to expiate), because, after
the censuia, an expiatory saciiiice was
offered for the whole Roman people. The
sacrifice consisted of a bull, a sow, and a
sheep or ram [suovetaurUia). The ram
was dedicated to Jupiter, the swine to
Ceres, and the bull to Mara. This sol-
emn act was called lustrum conden. As
this lustration took place at the end of
every five yeanyltutrwn came to signify a
period of nve years.

LusT&E. (See LustraUonJ)

LtTTE (in Italian, liuto ; French, Ivih ;
German, ktute^ perhaps fhom the German
lauien, to sound) is an instrument which
originated fix>m the ancient lyre. ((]. v.)
Some, however, think that it was intro-
duced into Spain by the Moors, where it
was called laoud ; and j&om thence into
Italy, where it received the name of /into.
The chdy9^ or testudOf of the Romans, was
probably a similar instrument It is a
stringed instrument, formerlv much in
use, anciently containii% only five rows
of strings, but to which six, or more,
were afterwards added. The lute con-
sists of four parts, viz. the table ; the
bodv, which has nine or ten sides ; the
neck, which has as many stops or divis-
ions ; and the head, or cross, in which the
screws for turning it are inserted. In
plaving this instrument, the perfonner
strikes the strings with the fingers of the
right hand, and regulates the sounds with
those of the left The notes for the lute
are generally written on six lines, and not
on five, l* here were formerly various
kinds in use. The lute, simply construct-
ed, is called the lYench lute ; ^ it has two
necks, one of which sustains the base
notes, it is called a theorbo ; if the strings
of the theorbo are doubled, it is called an
(xrch'lute. The diflliculty of playing up-
on this instnimeut, as well as that of
tuning it, is probably the reason that it has
gone out of use.

Luther, Martin, one of the greatest
men of the sixteenth century, was bom
at Eisleben, November 10, 1483. Hans
Luther, his father, a miner, removed with
his fanuly to Mansfeld, in 1484, and was
appointed to a seat in the council Mar-
tin was educated if! the deepest req>ect
*or religioD, and, at the age of 14, was

sent to school at Mairdebarg ; but le-
ceiving no assistance there, he was seut,
in 14£)@, to Eisenach. At first he obtain-
ed his support by singing souss at the
doors, like many other poor scholars ; but
he was soon taken under the care of a
maternal relation in easy cirr.umstance&
At school, he made rapid progress in •
Latin and other studies ; in 1501, enter-
ed the university of Erfun ; in 1503, re-
ceived the degree of master, and delivered
lectures on the physics and ethics of
Aristode. About this time, he discovered,
in the libranr of the university, a Latin
Bible, aiid found, to his no smaH delight^
that it contained more than the excerpts in
common use. He was destined by his
father to the law ; but his more intimate
acquaintance with the Bible, of which the
clergymen of that time knew only the
Gospels and Episdes, induced him to turn
his attention to the study of divinity. The
impression produced on him by the death
of his friend Alexis, who expired at his
side, on a journey fix)m Mansfeld to Er-
furt, by a stroke of lightning or the blow
of an assassin, uniting with the effect of his
early religious education and his poverty,
decided him to devote himself to the mo-
nastic life. Contrary to the wishes of his
fiither, he entered the monastery of the
Augustines, at Erfurt, in 1505, and sub-
mitted patiently to all the penances and
humiliations which the superiors of the
order imposed upon novice& But he al-
ways regarded himself as an unprofitable
servant. Pure and innocent as he was, he
tortured himself with bitter reproaches,and
was attacked by a severe fit of sickness ;
during which, one of the elder brothers
consoled his troubled heart, and promised
him the forgiveness of his rans through
faith in Jesus Christ^ This doctrine, al-
most forgotten in the zeal of the clergy
for good work^ as they called them, and
in the traffic in indulgences, brought a
new light into the soul of Luther. He
was also encouraged by the paternal mild-
ness of Staupitz, the provincial of the
order, who, perceiving his extraordinary
talents and acnuirements, delivered him
from the meniaJ duties of the cloister, and
pncouraged him to continue his theologi-
cal studies. In 1507, he was consecrated
Eriest, and, in 1508, by the influence of
is patron, Staupitz, he was made profes-
sor of philosophy in the new university of
Wittenbei^. In tliis sphere of action, his
powerful mind soon showed itself. He
threw off* the fettera of the scholasdc ph^
losophy, so intimately coimected with the
pq>al hierarchy, asaeited the rights elf

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LUTEDSR.

151

leasoD, and soon collected a lam number
of diacii^cs. In 1510, he Tiaitea the court
of pope Leo X, at Rome, on busineaB in-
iTOBted to him by his order. This journey
leTeaied to him the irreligion and corrupt
tion of the clergy at Rome, and destroyed
his reTerence for the sanctity of the pope.
After his return, he became a ))reacner at
Wittenberg, and, in 3512, he was made a
doctor iu theology. As such, his oath
bound liim/as he thought, to the fearless
defence of the Hol^ Scriptures. His pro-
found learning, which embraced an mti-
mate acquaintance with the ancient clas-
acs, the Others of the church, and the
spirit pf the Greek and Hebrew lan-
guages, tx^ether with the fame of his
eloquence, soon made Luther known to
the principal scholars, and esteemed as a
powerful advocate of the new light
which was breaking upon the world.
Great, therefore, was the attention excited
by his 95 propositions, ^ven to the worid
October 31, 1517, and mtended to put an
end to the sale of indulgences, by the
Dominican Tetzel. Luther was impelled
to this course solely by the love of truth,
and by his indignauon against the traffic
in indulgences, the unhappy eifects of
which had appeared already in his con-
gregation at Wittenberg. Ambition or
natred of the Dominicans had no influ-
ence in producing this measure. Hfk
propositions were condemned as heretical
as soon as they appeared. Hogstraaten, a
Dominican at Colore, doctor £ck at lo-
golstadt, and Prienas, an officer of the
Roman court, immediately began an at-
tack upon Luther ; but neither their in-
vectives, nor the papal summons to Rome,
which he did not obey, nor the mild ex-
hortations of the cardinal Cajetan, at
Augsburg, in 1518, and of the nuncio
Miltitz, at Altenburg, in 1519, with allur-
ing ofiers from the pope himself, were
sufficient to induce him to recant. He
replied to his opponents with boldness
and determination, and even after his dis-
pute with Eck at Leipsic, in 1519, he still
maintained the invalidity of indulgences,
and of the papal supremacy. No one an-
Bwered him, and he appealed with justice
from the decision of Cajetan, to the pope,
and from the pope to a general council.
In 1520, Luther and his niends were ex-
communicated. His vnitings were burnt
at Rome, Cologne and Louvain. Indig-
nant at this open act of hostility after lus
modest letter, in which he had showed
himself desirous of reconciliation, de-
clared his submission to the pope, and
advised a rafi>niyin the church. Luther

burned the bull of excommunication, and
the decretals of the papal canon, at Wit-
tenberg, December 10, 1530. fiy this act,
he dissolved all connexion virith the pope
and the Roman church. Frederic, the
elector of Saxony, seemed in doubt
whether lie should protect him. fiut the
worthiest of the German noblemen, Hiit-
ten, Sickingen, Schaumburg, whom he
called upon to defend the new opinions,
hailed him as the cluunpion of religious
hberty, and offered him their fonresses
and their arms. But Luther wished no
protector but God. He refused to hsten
to his anxious friends, who advised him
not to brave the Roman hierarchy ; a
spirit within urged him forward, and ho
could not resist The people received,
vnth amazement, the words of a monk,
who defied at once the pope and tho
cleivy, the emperor and the princes. For
this ne did, when he presented himself* at
the diet of Worms, April 4, 1521, accom-
panied by a few friends and the imperial
nerald, who had summoned him. He was
met by about 2000 persons on foot and on
horseback, at the distance of a league from
Worms. Such was his conviction of the
justice of his cause, that when Spalatin
sent a messenger to warn him of his dan-

§er, he answered, ** If there were as many
evils in Worms as there are tiles upon
the roofs of its houses, I would go on."
Before the emperor, the archduke Ferdi-
nand, 6 electors, 24 dukes, 7 mai^ves^
30 bishops and prelates, and many princes,
counts, lords and ambassadors, Luther ap-
peared, April 17, in the imperial diet, ac-
knowledged all his writings, and, on the
following day, made bis defence before
the assembly, ^e concluded his speech
of two hours in length with these words :
" Let me then be refuted and convinced by
the testimony of the Scriptures, or by the
clearest arguments ; otherwise I cannot
and will not recant ; for it is neither safe
nor expedient to act affainst conscience.
Here I take my stand ; I can do no other-
wise, so help me God ! Amen." He left
Worms, in met, a conqueror ; but it was so
manifest that his enemies were determined
upon his destruction, that Frederic the
Wise conveyed him privately to the Wart-
burg, to save his life. Neitiier the pro-
scription of the emperor, nor the excom-
munication of the pope, could disturb him
in his retirement, of^ which he took ad-
vantage to translate the New Testament
into German. But this retirement con-
tinued only 10 months. When informed
of the disturbances excited by Carlstadt
(q. v.), on the subject of images^ he could

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153

LUTHER.

no longer endure reslFunt, notwithstand-
ing the new outlawiy which the emperor
b^ just issued against him, at Nuremberg;
and, at the risk of provoking the displeas-
ure of the elector, he hastened to Witten-
berg, through the territory of George, duke
of Saxony, who was one of his most bit-
ter enemies. The letter to Frederic, in
which he justified his departure, proves,
not I<;ss than his conduct before the diet
at Worms, his fearless courage and the
ffreameas of his souL The sermons which
he delivered for eiffht successive days af-
ter his return (in Sfarch, 15s22), to quell
the violence of the enraged insursents in
Wittenberg, are patterns of moderation,
and wisdom, and {x>pular eloquence. They
show, in a striking light, the error of those
who consider Lumer only as a violent and
rude fanatic. He was violent only against
malignity, or when he thought the great
trutlu of religion in danger. Such mo-
tives sufficiently account for his caustic
reply to Henry VHI, king of England, and
the bitterness of spirit manifested in his
controversies with Carlstadtand Erasmus.
The latter, not without reason, he charged
with woridliness and lukewarmness in a
good cause. He viewed the attack of Carl-
stadt on his doctrine of the sacrament as an
open apostasy from the faith, and an act of
ambit to us jealousy. Amidst these disputes
and» attacks, his plans for a total reforma-
tion in the church, which was. called for by
the voice of the nation, were matured. In
1523, at Wittenberg, he began to piuify
the liturgy from its empty forms, and, by
laying aside his cowl, in 1524, he gave the
Rtgnal for tlie abolition of the monasteries,
and the better application of the goods of
the church. In 1525, he married Catha-
rine von Bora, a nun, who had lefl her
convent. Afler overcoming numerous
difficulties, he took this important step at
the age of 42 years, as much from princi-
ple as inclination, with the design of rc-
storiuff the preachers of the ^spel to their
naturu and social riffhts and duties. Wann
as was the zeal of Luther for a reform in
the churcli, he was desirous of avoiding
disorder and violence. While he went
hand in hand with the imperial cities and
foreign princes, both in words and actions,
he opiK)sed, most decidedly, the violence
of the peasantry and of the Anabaptists.
His enemies have shown great injustice
in implicating, bun as the author of those
outrages which arose from the enthusiasm
of the iffnorant, and were displeasing to
his noble and generous mind. Luther
prepared, from 1536 to 1529, a new
cbureh service, coiresponding to the doc-

trines of the goqMly undent the .
of the elector, and with the aid of Me-
lancthon and other members of the Sax-
on chinch. His lai|;er and smaller cate-
chisms, to be used m schools^ were also
of great service. But every one must
look with pain upon the severity and in-
tolerance which he manifested towards
the Swiss reformers, because their views
differed from his ovm in regard to the
Lord's supper. (See hordes SupptTj and
Sacrament,) He was thus the chief cause
of the separation which took place be-
tween the Calvinists and the Lutherans.
But, without his inflexible firmness, in
matters of faith, he would have been un-
equal to a work against which artifice and
power had array^ all their forces. The
rapidity vrith which the reformation f q. v.)
advanced afler tlie confession of Augs-
bui^, in 1590, rendered the papal bulls
and the imperial edicts against Luther in-
efficient But he was obliged to be con-
tiniuUly on his guard against the cimning
Papists, who strove to make him give up
some of the parts of his creed ; and it
required a firmness bordering on stern-
ness and obstinacy to maintain the vic-
tory which he had won. With a spirit
incident to such a state of things, Luther
wrote, in 15d7, the Smalcaldic articles;
he gave a refusal to the ambassadors of
Brandenbui^ and Anhalt, who were sent,
in 1541, by the diet of Ratisbon, to make
him more compliant towards the Catho-
lics ; and, in 1545, he refused any partici-
pation of his party in the council or Trent
The severity which he used in the de-
fence of bis faith, by no means diminishes
the merit of his constancy : and an apolo-
gy may easily be found for the frequent
rudeness of his expressions, in the pre-
vailing mode of speaking and thinking;
in tlie nature of his undertaking, which
required continual contest ; in the provo-
cations by which he was perpetually as-
sailed ; in his frequent sickness ; and in
his excitable imagination. The same ex-
citability of temperament will serve to
explain those dreadful temptations of the
devil, which disquieted him oflener than
would seem compatible with his strength
and vigor of mind ; for that age regard-
ed the devil as a real perBonfu;e, an evil
Principle ever active; and, if^any one
evoted himself to the cause of God, he
was constantly obliged to resist attacks of
the evil one upon his virtue. He sav*
himself, <* I was bom to fight with devib
and factions. This is the reason that my
books are so boisterous and stormy. It is
my buaineBB to remoye obBtructioDs^ to

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LUTHEB^LUTHEILANS.

153

cot down tlioiii8|tD fill up quagmirei, and
to open and make atnignt toe paths; but,
if I must, neeenaiilv, harp some fiJling,
let me rather apeak the tnith with too
great aeverity, than once to act the hypo-
crite and conceal the truth." Even the
enemies of Luther are forced to confeas
that he alwavs acted justly and honorably.
No one can behold, without astonishment,
his unwearied activity and zeaL The
woik of trsuslating the Bible, which might
well occupy a wnole life, he completed
fiom 1521 to 1534, and thus rendered his
name immortaL He equaUed the most
prolific authors, in the number of his trea-
tiaes on the most important doctrines of
his creed. After tne year 151^ he
preached several times every week, and,
9t certain periods, every day ; he officiated
at the confessbnal ana the altar; he car-
ried on an extensive correspondence in
liBttn and German, on various subjects,
with men of rank, and of diatioguished
litenuy attainments, and with his private
fiiends ; and, notwithstanding all this
press of occupation, he allows himself
some houra every day for meditation and
prayer, and was always accessible to visi-
ters. He gave advice and assistance
wherever it was needed; he interested
himself for every indigent perK>n who ap-
plied to him, and devoted himself, with
nis whole soul, to th^ pleasures of society.
In company, he was always lively, and
abounded in sallies of wit and good hu-
mor (preserved in his Tuchredem [Table-
Talk]); he was temperate in his enjoy-
ments. Luther was no stranger to the
el^ant arts. His excellent hymns are
well known. His fondness for music, too,
was such, that, as often as circumstances
permitted, he would relax his mind with
singing, and playing on the flute and lute.
But few men are equal to such excessive
labor ; and, with a weaker constitution, such
a constant round of action, and vicissitude
And toil would soon have overcome the
great reformer. Indeed, from the year
1531, he had a painful disease (the stone,
accompanied with vertiffo) to contend with,
and, in several fits of sickness, was brought
near the grave ; but be lived to the age
of 63. Just befbre his last journey to
Eialeben, where he was summoned by the
counts of Mansfiekl to settle a dispute, he
wrote, in a letter to a friend, the following
description of his condition : ** Aged, worn
out, weanr, spiritless, and now blind of
one eye, I long for a little rest and (]uiet-
neas ; yet I have as mueh to do, in wnting,
and preaching, and actinc, as if I had
oem written, or prMMshedi or acted* I

am weanr of the world, and the worid la
weary of me; the parting will be easy, like
that of the guest leaving the inn ; I prev,
only, that Ctod will be mcioiis to me m
m^ last hour, and shaU quit the wotM
without reluctance." He wrote this in
January, 1546. On the l^th of the suc-
ceeding February, he died at Eisleben,
and was buried in the castle-church of
Wittenberg. He left a wife, whom he
tenderiy loved, and two children (two
others having previously died] in straiten-
ed circumstances. His wife died in 15S2.
The male line of his posteritv became ex-
tinct in Martin Gotdieb Luther, who was
a counsellor at law, and died at Dr^en,
in 1759. Against his will, his adherents
styled themselves Lutherans ; against his
will, they engaged in a war which broke
out immediately after his death, and deso-
lated Germany. As lonir as he lived,
Luther was for peace ; and he succeeded
in maintaining it ; he regarded it as im-
pious to seek to estoblish the cause of God
by force ; and in feet, during 30 years of
his life, the principles of the reformaticm
gained a finner roodng, and were more
widely propagated, by his imshakea feith
and unwearied endeavor, than by all the
wars, and treades and councils since. Lu-
dier's SammU. Werke (Complete Works)
appeared in 1836, at Erlangen, in 60 vols.
Five different collections of his writings
were published earlier, of which the most
complete is that by Walch (24 vols., 4to.).
There is a life of Luther, by Schrockh, in
his Lebensheschrieb. htriihmUr Gel. (Lives
of distinguished Scholars), (part 1, 1790).
— ^For further information, see the articles
ReformaHonjimdPnfteslants. See also the
Ijife of Luther, mth an Accovnd of (he Refer-'
motion, by. A. Bower (London, 1813), and
the articles on Calvin, MelancUwn, jEras-
mus, Zvinglius ; also Robertson's CharU$
V, and Mosheim's Ecclenastical History,

Lutherans ; the followers of the doc-
trines of Luther, though the reformer
himself, in his writings, expresses his dis-
approbation of making his name that of
a sect, In Spain, and some other Catho-
lic countries, the name Lutheran is, in
common parlance, almost svnonymous
with herehe. In Sweden and Denmark,
there is an established Episcopal Luther-
an church ; this is not the case in Protes-
tant Geimany. Bishops have latelv been
created In Prussia (see LUurgy) ; but, as
fer as chureh ffovemment is concerned,
they ,are merely titukr, whatever may
have been the intention of their establish-
ment Th^ are, however, neither Lu-
thenn nor CahiniBtfbiit evangelical (%.▼•).

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154

LUTHERANS-LUTZEN.

The Lutherans in Germany cannot bo
said to adhere, strictly, to aJl the doctrines
of Luther, so great a treedom of opinion,
on reli^ous matters, having gained ground
in that country. As few German Calvin-
ists adhere to predestination, few Luther-
ans adliere to cousubstautiation, in tlie
Lord's supper. (See Lutkar, and Re/or-
matioTL)

LuTHE&!r, in architecture; a kind of
window over the cornice in the roof of a
building, serving to illuminate the upper
story.

LuTZEir, a small town in the present
Prud»ian duchy of Saxony, to which two
celebrated battles have given historical
renown, containing 1900 inhabitants, and
belonging to the government of Merse-
burg, lies 11 miles S. W. of Leipsic
Stratesy shows why Saxony has so often
been 3ie field of baule between the pow-
ers of the north-east and the powers of tlie
south-west of Europe. How often have
the plains of Leipsic and Liitzen, the
neighborhood of Dresden and Bautzen,
been the scene of conflict! The first bat-
de of Liitzen wos fought in the 30 years'
war, Nov. 6 (16), 1(532, between Gustavus
Adolphus, king of Sweden, and VValleu-
4Stein, duke of Friedland. The imperial
troops, under the latter, ainouuted to
40,000 men; the Swedish troops, under
Oustavus, to 27,000, including the Saxons
under Bernard, duke of Saxe- Weimar.
The battle was extremely obstinate, and
neither party was decisively victorious
during the day, but Wallenstein began
retrograde movements the next day. In
liis,army, tlie famous general Pappenheim
was mortally wounded, and soon after
died. On the side of the Protestants, tlie
hero of their cause, Gustavus Adolphus,
fell. The circumstances of his death are
uncertain ; but it is a mistake to sup|)ose that
he fell a victim to revenge and treachery.
His body was found, by the soldiers sent
in search of it by Bernard, under a heap
of dead, and so much mutilated by the
hoofs of horKS, as to be recognised with
difficulty. A plain stone marlus this spot,
not far from Ltitzen, on the great road to
Leipsic; a few ponlars and some stone
seats surround it. His body was carried
to Liitzen, where traces of the blood are
still shown, in the town house. (See
Chtstavus I, and Thirty Years' War.) A
second batde, fought near Liitzen, May 2,
1813, between Napoleon and the com-
bined Russians and Prussians, was the
first peat conflict ailer Napoleon's disas-
leis la Russia ; and on this occasion, the
young French and Pnmian levies fim

measored their strength. Several reasons
induced the allies to attack Napoleon,
though his aony, according to the best
calculations, was much superior in num-
bers. The French corps hi Saxony
amounted to about 1jO,O0O men; the
allies had 55,000 Prussians and 30,000
Russians beyond the Elbe. The latter
were superior in cavalry, the French in
artillery, and each was desirous to decide
the battle by the species of troops in which
his superiority consisted. Count Witt-
genstein commanded the allied forces.
Napoleon's troops were moving in the
direction of Leipsic, and had already ad-
vanced considerably, while they were still
supposed, by the enemy, to be near L(ii-
zen. Genera] Kleist became engaged
in a sharp conflict with tlie French van,
which was much superior to him in num-
ber. The mass of the enemy was thus
directed against tlie flank and rear of the
allies. Between the allies and Lutzen
lay the villages Starsiedel, Kayn, Rana,
Gorschen, hanll^ guarded by Ney's corps,
which was quietly^ bivouacked behind
them. Wittgenstein took this corps for
Napoleon's van, and ordered the attack
accordingly. The Prussian troops took
these villages with great promptness. It
vras necessary that Ney should sustain
himself until Napoleon could bring back
his masses from the road to Leipsic. The
possession of these villages was, therefore,
warmly contested ; they wero token and
retaken with equal courage and obstinacy ;
but the successive arrival of new bodies
of French caused some changes in Witt-
genstein's orden ; the allied cavalry could
not operate so eflectually as had been
hoped, and tlie want of infantry began to
be felt severely. Both armies displayed
(^reat courage. The Prussian troops
fought with a resolution corresponding to
the ardor which had hurried them into tlie
field, and its effect became visible on the
French centre, which did not escape Na-
poleon's experienced eye. " The Key of
the position," says the duke of Rovigo,
" was tlie village of Kava, occupied by
Ney, and through which ran the road
from Pegay to Liitzen. Had the fdlies
succeeded in carrying tliis place, they
could have advffnced to Liitzen, and thus
have divided the French armv into two
portions, which could only have been
reunited on the other bank of the Saale.
Great efforts were therefore made, by the
French, to maintain Kaya, which was
taken and retaken several times in the
course of the day.*' The emperor Nimo«
leon DOW ordeied general Drouot, \m aid-

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155

de-camp, to advanoe in all haate, with €0
pieoea of artiUeiy, aa near aa poasible to
the enemy'a columna, and to attack him
oUiquety, on hia left ilank ; fi>r this, the
eoline of the Floflagreben, which had also
been used to great effect 200 ^eara befote,
m the battle first deacribed, afiorded an ad-
irantngeoua position. The artillery made
auch ravages in the enemy's columns, for
the space of an hour, that ho could not
resist the rigorous attack which Napoleon
renewed on Kaya, by means of marshal
Moruer's corps. This village was at last
carried, as well as the others : night came
on, and the last attempt by the Prussian
cavalry was abortive. Thus both armies
occupied nearly the same ground afler the
batde as before. According to the most
accurate and impartial accounts, there
were abcat 69,000 of the allied troops en-
gaged against 10^000 French. The latter
are said to have lost 15,000 men, killed
and wounded, among whom were five
generals ; the Russians are said to have
lost 2000, and the Prussians 8000. Gen-
erals BlCicher and Schamhorst were
wounded ; the latter died in Prague — a
severe loss for the Prilssians. The French
had lost Beasi^s, duke of Istiia, on the
preceding day. The allies were obliged
to make retrograde movements, and, owing
to this batde. Napoleon was again master
of Saxony and the Elbe, on May 10.
The French say, that, had they possessed/
sufficient cavaliy to pursue the enemy
briskly, the campaign might have been
ended by this battle; the allies assert,
that, bad they been better supplied with
artillery, they would have remained in
possession of the villa^s, and the most
serious consequences might have followed
for the Frencli. This battle hwl the best
effect on the spirit of the Prussian troops
and nation. It was the first in which the
Prussian forces had measured themselves
with die French since the disastrous cam-
paign of 1806, and they were now con-
vinced of their ability. to withstand their
fonner conquerors. The result of the
batde was, indeed, advantageous for the
French ; but the advantage was so dearly
bought, and the Prussians, whom the
French troops had been taught to consid-
er as "school boys," and uiexperienccd
peasants, had conducted in such a manner
as to show that campaigns like those of
1^)4, 1806 and 1809, were no longer to be
expected.

Lirrzo w's Free CoRPs,or Voluhteers;
a Prussian corps, during the war of 1813
and 1814^ which originated firom the TVi-
l^eiuftuttd (q. ▼.)» and was commanded by

major Lfitzow. Many young men of the
beat fimiliea, and moat patriotic spirit^
joined it K6mer (q. v.) belonged to this
corps, and celebrated it in several of his
poems.

Luxation, in surgery, is the removal
of a bone out of its place or articuladon,
so as to impede or destroy its proper
motion or ofiice; hence luxations are
peculiar to such bones as have iuovable
joints.

Luxembourg, Paulce op ; one of the
most magnificent ]Milaces in Paris, built in
imitation of the Pitti palace at Florence,
completed in 1620, after four years labor,
by Jacques Desbrosscs, for Mary of Med-
ici, widow of Henry IV, on the site of the
hotel of the duke d'Epiuay-Luxembour^,
and successively inhabited by mademoi-
selle de Montpensier, the duchess de
Guise, the duchess of Brunswick, and
mademoiselle d'Orleans. Louis XVI
gave it to Monsieur, his brother ; during
the revolution, it was converted into a
prison ; it was afterwards occupied by the
senate ; at present, the chamber of peers
assemble there. The building is very
spacious, and its rooms contmn beautiful
specimens of architecture and statuary.

Luxembourg (Hofei (/u Petit); an edi-
fice in Paris, adjoining the garden of the
Luxembourg palace. It was built by car-
dinal Richeheu for his mother, and after-
wards belonged to the uriuce de Cond^,
During die republic, the directory was
established here, and here it received gen-
eral Bonaparte, on his return from Egypt,
a few days before the 18lh of Brumaire.
It was next occupied by the first consul^
during the firot six months of his consul-
ship. Ney was confined here, and shot
in the garden ; and, more recently, prince
Polignac and his colleagues were confined
here, previous to their trial.

Luxembourg (Francis Henry de Mont-
morenci), duke of, moTBhal of I ranee, was
born m 1628. He was die posthumous
son of the count de Bouteville, who was
beheaded in the reign of Louis XIII, for
fighdng a duel. He served, when young,
under die prince of Cond6 ; and, in 16(s2,
he was made a duke and peer of France ;
and, in 1667, a lieutenant-general. In
1672, he commanded during the invasion
of Holland ; and, having gained the batde
of Senef, in 1674^ he was created a mar-
shal of France. In the war of France
agamst England, Holland, Spain and Ger-
many, lie won the three great batdes of
Fleurus (July, 1, 1690), Stemkirchen and
Neerwinden (June 29, 1693). He died
in 1695.

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LIIX£MJMJRCI-.UnEAC

LmoDonma ; a province of the Idiiff^
dom of the NetheriaadB, with the title
of grand duchy, and, at the same tune, a
member of the Germanic confederation,
corapriung the duchies of Luxemburg and
of Bouillon, bounded by Liege, the Lower
Rhine, Namur and France. The superfi-
cial extent is about 24D0 square miles,
with 293,555 inhabiumts. The surfiice is
covered with woods, mountains, and des-
ert heaths, among which, however, are
some pleasant valleys and fertile hills.
The Ardennes are the chief mountains.
The soil is stony, marshy, and not very
productive. The Moselle -and the Ourthe
are the principal rivers. Agriculture is
the cliief occupation of the people, but
potatoes form the principal food, com not
being raised in sumcieiit quantities. The
forests belonging to the state alone, extend
over 117,971 hectares. Catde are abun-
dant ; great flocks of sheep are reared on
the plains of the Ardennes; the horses
axe small, but celebrated for their spirit
and activity. The iron mines are exten-
sively wrought, and the slate quarries
yield' lai^ quantities of roof-slates. The
inhabitants are Walloons and Germans,
and are in general rude, superstitious and
ignorant. They are of the Koman Catho-
lic religion. Till the late revolution, the
king of the Netherlands, as crand-duke
of Luxemburff, was a member of the
Germanic confederation, with one vote in
the diet and three in the oZentim, and fur-
nished a contingent of 2256 men to the
army of the confederacy. The Belgians
have laid claim to Luxemburg, but, as the
Belgic afiairs are yet undecided, we must
refer to the article J^eiherUmds for the
issue of the negotiations. As a province
of the kingdom of the Netherlandis, it sent
lour members to the lower house of the
states-generaL The provincial estates
consist of 60 members, named by the
three orders, that of the nobles, that of
the cities, and that of the country. Lux-
emburg was erected into a duchv, by the
German emperor, in 1354, and formed a
part of the Austrian Netherlands. In
1815, it was ^granted to the king of the
Netlieiianda, by the congress of Vienna,
as an indemnification for his cessions in
Germany. (See JSTosmhu) Luxemburg^
the capital, with 11,430 innabitanta, is one
ofthesbongest fortresses in Europe. The
upper town is situated on an elevated
rock, rising precipitously fi;om a plain,
and defeiMcd by stronjf works. Five
batteries on the neighbormff heixrhts com-
mand all the country roun^ and particu-
lariy the roads fiiom Treves and Thion-

vIBe. It « one rftfaefimr great i
reserved by the Germanic confederation,
and gairiuwned by a large body of Gerroau
troops. Lat 49^37' N. ; Ion. 6<'9'£.; 27
leeffues 9. £. of Liege ; 39 S. £. of Brussels.

Luxoa; a village of Upper Egypt, on
the riffht bank of the Nile, containmg
splendid ruins of Thebes, the site of which
it occupies. (See ThAts.)

LuTNBs, Charles d'Albert, duke de,
&vorite and premier of Louis XIII, and
constable of France, bom in 1578, was
descended fiom a noble Florentine &mily
Milberd), which had been banished from
Florence. Having become one of tlie
pages of Henry IV, he was the playmate
of the dauphin, whose fiivor he soon won
by consulting all his caprices. When
Louis ascended the throne, he appointed
Luynes his gnmd fidconer, and marshal
D'Ancre, who was all-powerful at court,
showing some jealousy of his influence
the favorite soon efiected his disgrace
The marshal was assassinated, and Luy
nes obtained a grant of all his immense
estates, and succeeded to all his places
and charges (1617). . In 1619, his estate
of MaUl^ was erected into a duchy, under
the tide of Lu^iies. He next supplanted
Mary of Medici, mother of the king,
whom he caused to' be exiled ; and the
whole administration was now in his
hands. In 1^1, the dignity of constable
of France was revived for him. Though
the feeble king oflen complained of his
cupidity and arrogance, thou^ the whole
court yma intrigumg against him, and the
nation indigiumdy odled for his disgrace,
Luynes died in 1621, without having ex-
perienced any visible loss of fiivor or in-'
fluence. (See Louis XIIL)

Ldzac, John, a distinguished philolo-
jpan, jurist and publicist, bom at Leyden,
in 1746. His parents were French Prot-
estants^ who had left France to avoid re-
ligious persecudons. Alter completing
his studies, under Valckenaer and Ruhn-
ken, he declined the chair of iurispru-
dence offered him at Leyden, and tluu of
Greek at Groninaen, and went to the
Hague to prepare himself for the bar. In
17?^, he returned to Leyden, to assist in
editmg the Leyden Gazette, which was
read by all European scholars and states-
men at that time, on account of the valu-
able character of its materials.* From

* The Levden Gaxette {GateUe de Leuden)
WBi establisMd in 1738, by the uncle and mthcr
of John, and contains materials important to the
historian of the American revolution. John
Adams, while minister in Holland, pnhliihrd sev*
eral papers ia it.

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LUZAC— L^CIA.

187

1775, he had almost the entire direction
of thatjournaL His editorial' and pro-
ferenonal labors did not prevent him nom
the assiduous study of ancient Utersture.
He corresponded with the most distin-
guished personages of the time, and re-
ceived the mo^ flattering marks of es-
teem from Washington, Jefferson, Adams,
tiie emperor Leopold, aiul Stanislaus,
king of Poland. In {he midst of these
various occupations, he accepted the
Greek chair in the university of Leyden,
to the regular duties of which he added
private lectures and exercises for deserv-
ing students. In 1795, he published an
aildress De Socrate Cive^ accompanied
with learned and judicious notes, and
dedicated to John Adams, whose eldest
son had studied under his direction. Dur-
ing the revolutionary troubles which suc-
ceeded in Holland, Luzac, who was no
lew a friend of order than of liberty, was
forbidden to continue his lectures on his-
tory (1796), but was permitted to continue
his instructions in Greek literature. He
refused to accede to this arrangement, and
was therefore entirely suspended from his
professorial functions. On this occasion,
Washington wrote to him, assuring him
of his esteem, encouraging him to hope
for justice when the ferment of the mo-
ment should be over, and professing
that America was under great obligations
to the ^vritings and conduct of men like
him. In 1802, he was restored to his
former poet, with an increase of salary
and powers. He continued actively en-
gaged in his literary labors till 1807, when
Be was killed by the explosion of a vessel
with gimpowder aboard, in the harbor of
Leyden. His Lectionea Atticte, a defence
of Socrates (1809), was published by pro-
fessor Sluiter. His colleague, professor
Siegenbeeck, has given an account of
Luzac, in his history of the catastrophe
which caused his death.

Luzerne, Anne C^sar de la, a French
diplomatist, bom at Paris, in 1741, after
having served in the seven years' vnir, in
which he rose to the rank of colonel,
abandoned the military career, resumed
his studies, and, turning his vievra to di-
pliimacy, was sent, in 1776, envoy ex-
traordinary to Bavaria, and distinguished
himself in the negotiations which took
place in regard to the Bavarian succes-
rion. In 1778, he was appointed to suc-
ceed Gerard, as minister to the U. States,
and conducted himself during five years
hi which he remained there, with a pru-
dence, wisdom and concern for their in
teresia, that gained him the esteem and

vojm viil 14

affection of the AmerieaosL In 1780,
when the American army was in the moe^
destitute condition, and the government
without resources, he raised money on his
own responsibility, and vrithout waiting
for orders from his court, to relieve the
distress. He exerted himself to raise pri-
vate subscriptions, and placed his own
name at the head. In 1783, he returned
to France, having received the most flat-
teritig expressions of esteem from con-
gress ; and, in 17B8, was sent ambassador
to London, where he remained till his
death, in 1791. When the federal gov-
ernment was organized, the secretary of
state (Jefferson) addressed a letter to the
chevalier De la Luzerne, by dii^ection of
Washington, for tiie purpose of making
an express acknowledgment of his ser-
vices, and the sense of them entertained
by the nation.

Ltcanthropt (from the Greek Xwof, a
wolf, and ivOpotnot, a man) ; as defined bv
Cotrgrave,^a frenzie or melancholic, which
causcth tiie patient (who thinks he is turn-
ed woolf ) to flee all company and hide
himself in dens and comers." Herodotus,
with great ndtveU, tells us, that, when he
was in Scythia, he heanl of a people
which once a year changed themselves
into wolves, and then resumed their origi-
nal shape ; ^ but," adds he, ^ they cannot
make me believe such tales, ahbough they
not only tell them, but swear to them."
But the lycanthropcs of the middle ages,
or Umps-garoux, as they were called by
the French, were sorcerers, who, during
their wolf hood, had a most cannibal ap-
petite for human flesh. The Germans
call them }Vakrv\lft. Many marvellous
stories are told by the writers of the mid-
dle ages, of these wolf-men, or hups-ga-
roux, and numerous authentic narratives
remain of victims committed to the flames
for this imaginary crime, oflen on their
own confessions^

Lyceum ; an academy at Athens (q. v),
which derived its name fit)m its situa-
tion near the temple of Apollo, Avc<iof
(slayer of the wolf J. In its covered
walks, Aristotle explained his philoso-
phy. In modem times, the name of lyce^
un has been given to the schools intend-
ed to prepare young men for the uni-
versities ; for in them the Aristotelian
philosophy was formeriy taught in the
scholastic form.

Ltcia ; a maritime province of Ana
Minor, bounded by Caria on the west,
Pampbylia on the east, and Pisidia on the
north. Its fertiliqr and populousneas ara
attested by the U7 cities mentioDed l^

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LTdA-LTCUISOa

Ke, whh A c0B g i ^B W wliioh ragulaied the
miblie eoooeriM, anda pnadent oalM tiM
Lyeuire/L Litde to known of the early
hiaiorr and geognnhy of this countnr.
(See BeaulorA EBrnmima, London. 1817.)
LTCOPmoNy bom at Chakifl^ in Euboa.
a Grecian gtammarian, and the author or
ae¥wnl trajMiea) lived at Alexandria, 380
jean B. C^ under Philadelphua, whoee
tavor he won by the inveotkon of ana^
grama. He ia said to have died of a
wound, inflicted by the arrow of an an-
tagoniat with whom he Waa contendinff on
the merita of the ancient poeta. Of all
his writings, there remaina but one trar
gedy, Coiumdra (Alexandra), which ia
written in iambiea, and bears the maika
of leaminff acquired by patient indusory ;
it ia therefore veiy difficult, and filled with
obscure allusions. It is, properly speak-
ing, a continued soliloquy, in which Cas-
aandra predicts the fall of Troy, and the
ftte of all the heroea and heroines who
shared its ruin. It affords some infonna-
tkm of value respecting antiquities and
mythology. A mmoiarian, named John
Tzetzes, baa written a commentaiy upon
it — See the edition, ewfi Cbnimentarib Jo-
hanmi TieOzOj Cwra Jo. Potteri (Oxford,
1607 and 1703, folio) ; also those by seems
Reichani, with a commentaiy of Canter
(Leipaic, 1788), by Sebostiani (Rome,
1808), by C. 6. MiUler (Leipaic, 1811, 3
vola.)

Ltcurovs, the Spartan lawnrer, sup-
posed to have flouririied in the latter half
of the ninth century B. C, was, according
to the commonly received traditions, the
youngest son of the Spartan kins Euno-
mus. His eldest brother, Polydectes,
succeeded his fiither in the government,
but died soon after, leaving the kingdom
to Lycurgus. As the widow of Polydec-
tes was known to be pregnant, Lycurgus
declared that, if she bore a son, he would
be the first to acknowledge him for his
kinc. To convince the Lacednmouians
of Eis sincerity, he laid aside the royal ti-
tle, and administered the kingdom as
guardian to the future heir. In the mean-
while, the queen sent word to him, that, if
he would marry her, ahe would vrithout
delay cause the death of her child. He
flattered her with the idea that he vrould
comply with her wishea, until he obtained
poesearion of the child. From the joy of
the people at his birth, the diiki received
the name of Chanlaui (joy of the people).
Lycurgus, by the wisdom of hSa admmif»-
' traiion, had already won genend esteem ;
end his nebledlwmewatodncai now niaed

hiaglDiTto a haif^ vHddi awoke emry
iinatlimi in tiM minds of some of tba
distinguished Spaitans^ with whom
the queen conapired to revenge her dJa^K
poiniOMDt She ansead among the pen*
pie the opinion^ that it waa dangerous to
aq^niat the fiiture heir of the throne to the
man Kfho would gain moat by hia death.
To avoid tiys auspicion, Lycurgus vras
obhaed not only to resign the guardianahtp
of the young kmg, but even to leave h£i
eountiy. Whether this resolution was
pwrdy mduced by the desire of seeing for-
eign nations, and learning thdr mannera,
or not, we do not know ; but, at any rate,
he ia deacribed aa employing the time of
hia abaence in this way. After viaating
Crete, and admiring the wise lawa of Mi-
noe, he went to Ionia, 'the effeminate
and luxurious life of the inhabitants, the
feebl^aess of their laws, which formed a
striking contrast vrith the simplicity and
vigor of those of Crete, made a deep
impression upon him. Here, however, be
is said to have become acquaiuted widi
the poems of Homer. From hence he is
said to have travelled into various coun-
tries, including Egypt, India and Spain.
But, aa we do not find in his laws any
traces of Indian or Egyptian wisdom, this
to be doubtful. In the meanwhile,
the two kings, Archelaus and Charilaus,
were esteemed neither by the people nor
by the nobility ; and, as there were no
laws suflcient to maintain the public tran-
quillity, the*conliiflion passed all bouoda
In this dangerous situation, Lycurgus was
the onJy man finom whom heq) and deliv-
erance c6uld be expected. The people
Jioped fi!Om him protection asainst the
nobke, and the kuigs believed that he
wouki put an end to the disobedience of
the people. More than once, ambassadors
were aent to beg him to' come to the as-
sistance of the state. He long resisted,
but at last yielded to the urpent wishes
of his follow-citizens. At his arrival in
Sparta, he soon found that not only par-
ticular abuses were to be suppressed, but
that it woukl be necessary to form an
entirely new constitution. The esteem
v^ich his personal character, his judg-
ment, and tne dangerous situadon of the
stale, gave him among his fellow-citizeDs,
encouraged him to encounter boldly all ob-
staclea. The first step which he took was,
to add to the kings a gemsio, or senate of
98 persons^ venmble for their age (see
Oerianim)^ without whose consent the
kings wars to undertake nothing. He
thus efibcted a osefiil balance between the
power of the kings and the lioendousnaas

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LTCNUaOB.

1»

of ilie people. The peopk^ «t the i
^ oMdned tfaeprinlefe of gmng tMr

Mailed tbepnvilefe oTgrnnff tfteir
A public afium. They had not,
bowerer, properij epeakmgy delibentm
pri^lemy but only the limited right of
acoepungorof rejecdug what waspiopoe-
edby thekingiortheaeiiate. TheSfiar-
taoB confiMmed in general to the inedtu-
tions of LycurgiM ; but the equal diTiaion
of property excited amonc the rich such
▼iotent commotionB, that tne lawgiver, to
aaTe his life, fled towards a temple. On
the way, he leceiTed a blow, which struck
out one of his eyes. He merely turned
jouttd, and showed to his pursueis his
&ce streaming with blood. This sight
filled all with shame and repentance ;
they implored his pardon, and led him
respectfully home. The person who had
done the deed, a young man of rank, and
of a fiery character, was given up to 1dm.
Lycuigus pardoned him, and dismissed
him covered with shame. After having
dius fi>rmed a constitution for Sparta, Ly-
cuigus endeavored to provide finr its con-
tinuance. He made all the citizens take
a sc^emn oath, that they would change
nothing in the laws which he had in-
troduced, before his return. He then went
to Deh>hi, and asked the god whether the
new laws were sufficient for the hapfn-
nesB of Sparta. The answer was, <* Snar-
ta win remain the most prosperous ot all
states as long as it obeeares these lavra."
He sent this answer to Lacedesmon, and
banished himselfl He died, as it is said, of
voluntary starvation, fivfrom his countiy ;
according to some, at Cirrha ; according to
othen^ at Elis or urete. According to his
commands, his body was burnt, jSid the
ashes thrown into the sea, lest they should
be earned to Sparta, and the people thus
think themselves released from their oath.
A temple was erected in honor of him at
Sparta, and a societ^r was instituted by his
fiiends, which continued until the latest
times of Sparta, and had for its object to
eekteate the memoir of his virtues. The
principal object of the laws of Lycurgus
was, to introduce into his country a mi^d
fixm of ^vemment, composed of mon-
arehy, aristocracy and democracy, in such
a noanner that each element was restrain-
ed by the others. The two kings, and
with them the'^council of Gerontes, stood
St the head of the government, the people,
howevery haviog an indirect influence
upon their meesures. He divided all the
fatfiahitants of Sparta into three, aooordiiy
to some into six or more classes, subdi-
TidedintoaOanbes. With this was, prob-
ablVf ftftmift^fod the **^f!T inift fw tt?n w the

ef jMtiee, Mid the luka of mil-
Ai the Spitana had already
some ptogresi m civilization, wo
nmj well admue the resolutkm and the
genius of Lyeurgtm^ wbo waa able to
change not only theur civil relatkms, but
their morals and maimen^ and to induce
such a nation to sacrifice even the com-
fiNTtsof life. Even his pcopositioD of the
equal division of property, which at firtt
was violenUy opposeo, waa still accepted
as a law by all me citizens. At the time
when Lycunus altered the constitution,
there existed three clasDos — the ruling
Spartans, the tributsry Lacediemoniana,
and the Helot slaves. (See HMt.)
Thou(^ it appears cruel in bun to have left
the Helots in slavery, this waa not shock-
ing in the eyes of tlie Greeks. They had
no idea of the injustice of such a distinc-
tion between men. Lycurgus sought tp
use, in the way which he thought most ibr
the good of the state, the bonds which na-
ture, relationship and love fbna amonff
n^xL He treated love only asa meanaof
IHnoducing vigorous citizens for the state,
and thus preserving nati<Mial indepen-
dence. He appointed punishments fiir
immarried men, and for those who mar-
ried too late, or mairied persons of a Very
tmequal age. He made it difficult for
those who vrere newly married to meet
their vrives, that their pasrions might thus
remain unabated ; and he allowedf old or
impotent men to lend their wives to vig-
orous youtiis, and men of a sound consb-
tution, if their wives were weak and im-
potent, to take others. Children were not
the property of die parentis but of the
state. The state determined on their life
or death, and directed their education
vrithout regard to the parentsi To intro-
duce temperance and moderation among
the people, he ordered that the houses
should be built in the most simple man-
ner, and that aU should take their meals
in public, affixing also sevwe penalties to
debauchery and drunkenness. No flur-
eigner could remain in Sparta fenger than
was neoessary; no Spartan, except in
times of war, could leave the countiy.
The people were allowed to possess nei-
ther gold nor silver; but iron was used
for monev. The Spartans were never to
devote themselves to the sciences, but
only to learn the most indispensable
brsnches of knowledge ; they were not to
have theatres, nor to perftct theur muac;
they could have among them neither ar-
tists nor onton without the consent of the
government Lyomjpis made no chaope
m the leligiouieoiMtitutioa of Spaita; hia

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LYCUBiain-LYOLL

used itp on tfie eontnury, far bis pofitiod
nndBf and united die highest priestly dig-
nity with the royal office. He oidefed a
simple burial for the dead, forbade all
public lamentations, and limited private
mourning to 11 days. He allowed, how-
ever, the dead to be buried in the city,
and monuments to be erected to them in
the temples, in order that the hope of ob-
taining such honors after death might
lessen the fear of losing life. With regard
to the administration of justice, he gave
but few laws ; but these were sufficient, if
the other laws were obeyed. The quar-
rels which arose were decided either by
&e kings, or by the asKmbly of the peo-
ple, or by the gerusia, or, more generally,
by impardal and equitable citizens. One
of the most remarkable institutions of
Lycurgus, was the military education of
the Spartan youth, which was such as to
deitooy all sensibility to suffering, and to
overcome the fear of death. Tlie begin-
ning of a war was to them the beginning
of a festival, and the camp was a place
of recreation, for here ceased oil that strict-
ness of hfe which was observed at home ;
even the bodily exercises were less fre-
quent Victory or death was their highest
glory; eternal shame followed the cow-
ards and those who fled. The courage
of the Spartans was maintained, also, by
those laws which forbade tbem to sur-
round their city with walls, to fight oflen
with the same enemy, to ]mrsue too far a
routed enemy, to plunder the dead during
batde, and also by the solemn burial of
their heroes, the monuments to their
memory, the fosdvals and temples in their
honor. Nevertheless, Lycurgus did not
intend that the Spartans should be-
come a conquering nation, as is evident
from his forbidding them a navy. — The
institutions of Lycurgus have l)een blamed
as much as they have been praised. Pla-
to, in particular, accuses them of destroy-
ing eveiy thing humane, and making me-
chanical valor the highest virtue, and thinks
that this suppression of all the feelings of
humanity was the cause of the count-
leas evils which fell upon Lacedsemon,
and were prepared by her for other na-
tions. Thucydides makes Pericles say,
that the virtue of the Spartans is morose,
and founded only upon fear, and that
their education made them cruel and in-
human.-^We have here given the com-
monly received traditions concerning Ly-
curgus and his institutions, which, now-
ever, must be received with much caution*
If there were such an individual, — ^for this
Is doubtful,— he lived before the time of

hiflQrical eettaiDQr; and what an called
his Iswa^ were probably the usages and
institutions whicn were conunon to the
whole Doric race fix>m the earliest period.
A very full and critical examination of the
whole subject may be found in Miiller's
learned work. Die Doriar^ which has beeu
translated into English, under the title of
the History and Antiquities of die Doric
Race (2 vol&, 8vo., London, 1830).

Lyaargua was also the name of an Attic
orator of some celebrity. He was a con-
temporary of Demosthenes, whom he sur-
vived, and was fiunous for his integrity.
Only one of his orations, distinguished for
strength and dignity, has been preserved
to us. The latest editions are those of
Heiurich, Osaim and Becker, ull of 1821.
Ltdia (in ancient times, Mttoma) ; a
large and fertile country of Asia Minor.
The louiaus inhabited the part on the coast
of the Ionian sea. Towards the south, it
was separated from Caria by tiie Mieon-
der (now Meinder) ; towards the east, it
was bounded by Phrygia, and on the
north by Mysia. It was, in early times, a
celebrated kingdom, divided from Persia
by the river llalys (now Kizil Ermak).
Cyrus conquered Crcesus (q. v.), the last
Lydian king. The people, especially un-
der this king, were die richest, and, per-
haps, also, the most effeminate and luxu-
rious in all Asia. The Lydians invent-
ed luxurious garments, cosUy carpets,
precious ointments, and exquisite viands ;
and a kind of Grecian music, which was
said to bear the character of effeminacy,
was called the Lydian, They also laid
out beautiful gardens. They nrst discov-
ered the secret of communicating impo-
tence to men, that they might use them
to guard tiieir wives and concubines. In
the time of Herodotus, the corruption of
niannera among the Lydians ^vos ahiiady
so great, that the women publicly sold
their charms. Their example corrupt- .
ed also the lonians. The weoldi of the
Lydians, however, was probably, in a
great measure, confined to the kings and
chief men. These could fill Uieir coffera
witii the gold washed down by the Her-
mus (now ^-abat) and the Pactolus, and
that obtained from the mines; and tliey

Erocured all the necessities of life by the
ibor of their slaves, whose services they
requited, not with monev, but witii the pro-
ductions of the soil. They could dius ac-
cumulate the precious metals. Cnssus
was richer than all his predecessors, for
he subjected the whole coast of Farther
Asia, apd plundered all the comnier-
oial citiasL Although it cannot be proved

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LTDU— LTMAN.

tbm tiM Ljrdiflni had, in
my ooonderaUe eommeroey it caimot bo
denied that they had, kmg before the
CtoskBi aimlned a certam degree of dvil*
intioD, and that the Grecian colooiea in
Lower Asia owed to the Lydians their
fluperioiiQr over the' mother eountiy in the
aitt and aciencea. Among other things,
they owed to them the inventipn of goJd
and nlver ooina, of inna, of certain mu-
eical inMnunenla, the art of dyeing wool
(which was afterwards caiiied to such per-
feoiaQ in Miletus,) also the art of melting
and woriung ore, andf perhaps^ the fiist
mdimentB of painting and of sculp-
ture. At Sordis, the capital of the
ooimtry, the Grecians, Phrygians, and
even ihe nomadic tribes, bartered their
goods. There was here a neat maiket
rortlie shiYe-trade, which mmisbed the
harems of Penria with eunuchs. Lydia
now beftongs to the Turiuah district of
Natolia (Anadoly). (See Claike's and
Chandler^ TVoself.)

Ltbiat, Thomas ; a leaned Eng^iish
divine, mathematician and chronologer of
the seventeenth centuiy, who composed
several learned worlm, some of which he
was prevented ^m publishing by his pe-
euniaiy embarrassments, which were oc-
easicmed by his having become security
ftr another person's debts, and subjected
him to imprisonment. He afterwards
sufiered greatly for his attachment to the
royal cause, in the civil v^ars, and died in
obscurity and indigence, in 1646.

Ltdus. John Laurentius, commonly
eaHed Lyduij ftom the province in which
he was Iwni (A. D. 490), lived at Constanti-
nople, where he held several offices of
trust under Jusdnian. He is principally
known by his weak De MagistnOUnu Rev
puUicKe BmnantEj which was printed, for
the ftrat time, in 1812, ftxnn a manuscript,
obtained in 1785^ by Choiseul-Gouffier,
Frmch ambassadcM'at Constantinople. It
was edited, with a learned commentair
on the life and writings of Lydus, by At.
Hase (q. v.). Niebuhr calls it a new and
rich aource of Roman history. His other
worifis are on the Months (in Greek), of
which we have only fingments, and on
Omena (in Greek), of winch some firag-
ments only were before known, but nearly
the whole of which is contained in tlie
manuserqit of ChoiseuL

Lrine-To ; the situation of a ship when
she is retarded in her courae by ananging
die sails in such a manner that the y coun*
tsraet each other vrith neariy equal effect^
and render the Mp ahnost stationaiy with

faioqi^tf^ by kjiBg ehher hflr
sailorfore-lop-aatlabaekythe behn being
]Hitck)ee down to leeward. Thisispar-
tkulariy pnustised in a jrenenl engage-
ment^ whien the hostile fleets are drawn
up to battle.

Ltkah, Phinehas, m^jor-general, bom
at Duriuun, abont 1716, received his de-
gree at Yale college in 1738; was chosen,
whilst a senior sophister, one of the Bedt--
kian schohus ; and, in 1739, was aj^rauit-
ed a tutor, and in that capacity passed
three yean. He then commenced the
studyof law ; and soon after his admittanee
to the bar, acquired an extensive practice*
In 1750^ he was choeen a representative
in the assemUv of Connecticut, fiom the
town of Suffield, and, in 1753, was elect-
ed a member of the cotmcil, in which he
continued until 1759. In 1755, he wan
appointed maior-generB] and commander*
in-chief of the Connecticut forces, and
heU this post until the conclusion of the
Canadian war, durixiff which he acquired
a high reputation for military skill and
biavery. At the battle of lake George,
the command of the British armv devolv-
ed upon him, in consequence of sir Wil-
liam Johnsonii having been wounded in
the commencement of the action. In
1762; he commanded the American forces,
m the expedition to Havana, in which
he rendered important services. After-
wards f||eneral J^yman went to England an
agent for the company of *< military ad-
venturers,'' composed chiefly of such as
had served during the war, whose object
was to obtain fi^om the government a tract
of land on the Mississippi and Yazoo»
where they proposed to establish a colony.
L^man had counted upon the ftiendship
of some of the ministiy for success in hja
application ; but, before his anival^ they
had been removed, and, after bein^
amused for several yean with illusory
promises, he became convinced that he
bad nothing to hope. Not Ixmf able ta
brook the idea of returning to his native
country in the light of an unsuccessful
supplicant, he determined to pass the re-
mainder of his days in Enjg;land. He
spent 11 yeazB there, almost in a state of
imbecility, when, in 1774, his son waa
sent by Mrs. Lyman to beg him to return*
This cireumstance, in conjunction with
the grant of the tract in question about tha
same time, roused him ftom his letbaijaf^
and he once more appeared in America.
After iqwnding a short time in Connecti-
cut, he embariced, in 1775^ for the BBssis-
sippi, with his eklest son and a few com-
paniomk Ifiifiunily fottcrersd himiuthn

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LTMAM-^LTHN.

Best year, bat hiB son had ^[MeTiouslj died,
and Ub iHfe expired aooD after her arrind.
Hk fiunily renuiDed in that countnr until
it was invaded and conquered by the
Spaniards in 1781 and 1782, when the
mole colony fled to Savannah in Georgia.
General Lyman died in Weet Florida, in
1778, a short time after his son. Doctor
Dwigbt remaiks, in a sketch of the history
of tiie ftmily, that, for a considerable time,
no American poseased a higher or more
eztensire reputation.

Ltmph (hfn^fha); an aqueous liquid,
ooloriesB, insipid, and diaphanous, diffused
tlirouffh the whole animal economy, in
▼esseto called lymfhaiks. If allowed to
stand. It separates uto two parts, like the
bkxid— a serous fluid, and a solid, or clot
The lymph serves to repair losses of
the blood, by bringing to it various mate-
rials from dmerent parts of the system,
and chyle, which is mixed with the
lymph in the thoracic duct It seems also
to remove those elements of nutrition,
whose place is to be supplied by others,
and to transmit them to the surface. The
uses and history of lymph, however, are
yet imperfectly known. The lymphatic
▼easels were not known till towards the
middle of the seventeenth century. Tbey
are small, thin, transparent, furnished with
▼aires, like the reins, and spread through
diflferent parts and organs. The cause of
the circulation of the lymph is unknown,
as there does not appear to be any im-
pelling organ analogous to the heart It
has been supposed that the absorbent
power exercised at their mouths impels the
liquid fbrwitfd, that already absori>ed being
thus displaced by the new absorptions.
These vessels arise in every )Nut of the
body, and terminate in the thomcic duct

LrifCEt/s. (See Damaidea.)

LrifCH, Thomas, junior ; oue of the sign-
ers of the dedamtion of independence,
IxMn in South Carolina, August 5, 1749,
and sent to Eton school, England, in his
13th year. He w^ admitted a gentleman
commoner at Cambridge university, where
be took his degree's, and afterwanls com-
menced his terms in the Temple. In
177^ he returned to South Carolina, after
an absence of eight or nine years. His
father had warmly espoused the cause of
colonial emancipation, and Mr. Lynch sus-
tained him with ability. lu 1775, the
first regiment of provincial regulars was
raised in South Carolina, and Mr. Lynch
was appointed to tlie command of a com-
pany, and soon raised his quota of troop&
His exertions, while on this duty, injured
his health, and, when he joined liis regi-

ment late in the year 1775, a violent i
of the bilioos fever of the country, had i
dnced him to an extremely fe^e
His &tfaer having resigned his seat in coo-
gress on account of ill health, he was
elected to succeed him. At the period of
his election he was but 27 yeaia of age.
He took his seat in the congress of 17/6^
and his character and talents made him
highly esteemed there. His health soon
declined ; and, after affixing his name to
the instrument which decliued his coun-
try's independence, he retired from puUic
life. A change of climate being recom-
mended, he was induced to run the risk
of a voya^ to Europe, and embarked,
with his wife, about the dose of the year
1779, for St Eustatia. He was never
after heard from, and the shipis supposed
to have foundered at sea. ^

Ltrchburo ; a town in Columbia coun-
ty, Virginia, on the south bank of James
river ; lat ar* 3(/ N. ; Ion. 79° 23^ W. ;
population in 1830, 4626. It is situated
20 miles below the sreat fails, where
James ri^er breaks mrough the Blue
ridge, and is one of the most flourishing
and commercial towns in the state. It
contains several public ware-houses, in
which a large quantity of tobacco is an-
nually inspected. It has also tobacco
manufactories, tobacco stemmaries, and
numerous establishments for trade and
manufactures. There are in the vicinity
mamifacturing flour mills on an extensive
scale, and cotton and woollen manufacto-
ries. In the neighborhood of the town
are four mineral springs. Lynchburg was
established in 17^3(3, and incorporated in
18Ci). It is built mostly on the dechvity
of a hill. The surrounding country is
rugged, broken and mountainous, but
abounds in fertile valleys, and is populous.
From its siniation, it commands an exten-
sive trade, not only with the western part
of Virginia, but the states of North Caro-
lina, Tennessee, Kentucky and Ohio.
The articles brought to the market consist
of tobacco, wheat, flour, hemp, butter,
whiskey, cider, beef^ Uve hogs, &c Tite
produce is conveyed in batteaux down the
river to Richmond, which is the depot of
all the merchandise passing from Lynch-
burg destined to foreign markets.
Ltndhurst, lord. (See Copley,)
Ltn^t; a post-town in Sussex county,
Massachusetts ; 5 miles S. W. of Salem, 9
N. N. E. Boston ; Ion. 70° SS' W. ; lat 42«
28^ N. : population in 1820, 4515 ; in 1830,
6138. It is noted for the manufacture of
shoes. About 1,500,000 p^r of women's
shoes are made here annually. Th^na is

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LYNN— LYONa

168

A nunenl spring in tins town, near which
is ^ hotiw for the accommodation of tis-
ilen. Its Indian name was Saugus, —
i^fim headi connects the peninsula of Nsr
hant to the main kmd. (See ^TahanL)

Ltnx. This name has been applied to
most of the cats with short tails: serenl
qpecies were formeriy confounded by Lin-
nesus under this head, and tliere is sdll much
eonfusion respecting them. The laigest
and most b^utifuT, the F. carvarioj is
found in Asia and Russia. The lynx of
Cuiope, the F. lynxy has become rare, ex-
eept in the Pyrenees, and part of the Ap-
ennines. This animal is about three feet
kmg, and is veiy destructive to the smaller
qui^rupeds. It was celebrated, among
die ancients, as having been harnessed to
the car of Bacchus, in his conquest of
India. They also attributed great quick-
ness of sight to it, and feigned that its
urine was converted into a precious stone.
The dun of the male is 4>otted, and is
more valuable in winter than in summer.
The caracal (F. caracal) is somewhat
laiger than a fox, and derives its name
from the black color of its ears, the word
caracal signifying black in the Turkish
language. There are several species of
these animals in North America, the best
known of which is the Northern or Can-
ada lynx (F. Canadensis). Pennant con-
sidered it as identical with the lynx of ^
the old world ; Geoffroy St. Hiloire named
it as a distinct species, and Temniinck has
again, under the name of F. borealisy de-
scribed the species as the same in both
hemispheres. It is known by the name
of loup-ceroier, and le chatj among the
French Canadians. It is found in great
abundance in the districts about Hudson's
bay, from whence seven to nine tliousand
skins are annually exported. It is a timid
creature, incapable of attacking the larger
quadrupeds, but very destructive to rabbits
and hares, on which it chiefly preys. It '
makes but little resistance when brought
to bay by a hunter; for though, like a cat,
it spits, and erects the hair on its hack, it
is easily destroyed by a blow with a slender
stick. It is about three feet long from the
tip of its nose to the end of its tail, which
is about six inches in length, with a black
tip. Its large paws, slender loins, and
long, but thick hind legs, with large but-
tocks, scarcely relieved by a short, thick
tail, give it a cluing and awkwaixl ap-
pearance. Its gait is by bounds, straight
forward, with the back a Uttie arched, and
lighting on all tlie feet at once. It swims
well, and will cross the arm of a lake of
two miles in width, but is not swifl on

land. Its flesh is eaten, beingftt, white, and
somewhat resembling the rabbit in flavor.
It breeds once a year, having two young
tf a time. The other American 'species
are F, rvfa and F.fasdaia, both of which
are smaller than the preceding. The
fonner occurs in the Atlantic states as
well as to the north and west ; the latter
appears to be confined to the borders of
plams, and the woody countiy in the
vicinity of the Pacific. From the ac-
counts of travellers in the northern and
western parts of this contment, it is prob-
able that there is more than one non-
descript animal of this ^nus, especial-
ly in the countriesv bordenng on the Co-
lumbia ; but, as the skins procured fit>m
thence are carried directi^ to China, they
seldom come under the mspection of the
naturalist.

LroNNAis ; a ci-devant province in the
eastern part of France, of which Lyons
was tiie capital. It consisted of Lyonnais
Proper, Beaujolais and Forez. It now
forms the departments of the Rhone and
the Loire. (See Department,)

Ltonnet, Peter, a celebrated natural-
ist, bom in 1707, at Maestricht, graduated
at Utrecht, and was for some time a coun-
sellor at the Hague. He afterwards be-
came secreCaiy, and Latin and French
interpreter to the states of Holland. This
situation occupying but little of his time,
he employed himself in researches into
the natural history of insects and other
animals, particularly such as were to be
found in tiie vicinity of the Hague. He
formed a valuable collection of shells,
and was admitted into many of the prin-
cipal scientific societies in Eiuope. His
death took place Jan. 10, 1789. His most
important production is entitied TraiU
anatomiqfue de la CheniUe qui range k Bois
de Saide (1760, 4to.}--a work no less re-
markable for originality of design than for
splendor of execution. Lyonnet was dis-
tinguished for his skill as a painter and
engraver, and he displayed much ingenu-
ity in improving microscopes, and other
uistruments used in makiug his observa-
tions.

Lyons, or, properly, Lyon {Lugduntan) ;
the second city of France, situated on the
Rhone and Saone, 93 leagues S. E. of
Paris, and 63 N. W. of Marseilles ; archi-
episcopal see ; capital of the department
of the Rhone; hcad-quartere of a military
division; and seat of numerous adminis-
trative and judicial authorities; lat 45^
4& N. ; Ion. 4^ 49' E. ; population, in-
cluding the suburbs, in 1828, 185,723.
Three bridges cross the Rhone, which is

Digitized by VjOOQIC

164

LTON8-tLTON8» gulp OP.

bera about 690 Ib0t wide, and oAbd oecar
mourn great deetnictiQii by ite inu n dariofi^
aa waa the case particulariY in 1819 and
1835. ' The Sa6ne, which is 480 fe^
md^ » croaeed by alz bridgea. The
riven are lined with wharvea, aome of
which are adorned with liandaome build-
inga, thronged with boata of Tarioua de-
soriptiona^ and reeound with tiie hum of
numerous mills and water-ehope. The
interior of the city preaenta the aspect of
an old town, with narrow and dmk streets^
lined with houses seven or eight sumea
high, built aohdiy of alone. The pare*
ments are pebUeai and there are no side-
walks. Some of the atreeca, in the mqre
modem quarters of the citT,*are more
apBcious and handsome. There are 59
public amiarea, among wlueh that of Louia
le Grand, or Bellecour, one of the moat
magnificent in Europe, ia adorned with
beautiful hmo-treea, and an equestrian
statue of Louis XIY. The monastic
grounds and aardens have been mostly
covered with Buildings since the revolu-
tion« Among the principal buildings are
the splendid hdtd de tnZZe, next to that of
Amsterdam, the finest in Europe ; the
palace of commerce and the arts, con-
nected with which are lecture-halls, where
various courses of lectures are delivered ;
the vast prefect-house, formerly a Domin-
ican convent, with an extensive garden ;
the principal hospital, or hdtdDieu; the
Gothic cathedral of St John, &c. There
are also numerous hospitals and churches,
apaZau dtpuUet, and an extensive prison,
llie tower of Pitmt, erected on an eleva-
tion to the north of the city, for an obser-
vatory, fell down in 1838, but has since
been reconstructed. Many antiques have
been found in the part of the city situated
on the ancient Fhrvm Trojamiy and on the
site of an imperial Roman palace. Med-
als, coins, vases, statues, lachrymatories,
&a, with remains of aqueducts, of a the-
atre, and Roman baths, are among the
relics of antiquity. On the hill of Four-
vi^ree is a genend cemetery, adorned with
trees and handsome tombs, laid out in
1806. Lyons contains one of the finest
libraries m France, consisting of 93,000
volumes. Among its scientific and useful
institutions are a royal college, medical
and theological schools ; an academy of
science, literature and the arts ; agricultu-
ml, Linn«Ban, medical, law, Bible and
other societies ; a nwid de pidiy savings-
bank, &C. The commerce and manu&c-
lures are extensive ; the most important
article is silk, the manufiMStures of which
are celebrated lor their firmneaa and

dOc and woottaa, «i
cotton stuA^ baaotiibl ahawli^
hoae, gM and aihw laosL Ue^ are
the produeai of bar taidi»tiy. A laiga
propoition of ail the ailk niaed in Fkanea,
and great ^uantitiea faramted fimm Itahr,
are wrouffht up hare. The sib raised m
the vicimty is remai&abie lor its while-
neas. In 1838, the number of ssiabBwh-
menta for the manufiicture of aSk waa
{within die walk) 7140^ and that of the
looma, 18,839. Printing and the book
nrade, papei^hanginA the manoAeture
of glaas, jewels, arnfidal ifewen, keli^
&C., give oocapatkm to numerous bandsk.
Lyona haa an extensive tiaasit trade of
provisions for the southern dties^ and of
the oil and aoap of Provence, and tile
winea of Languedo<^ fer the nevthoni.
Numerous and extensive warahouasa Mid
docks facilitate the great conmiereisl ope-
retiona of this queen of Eaalem France.
The Lyonneae are induatrioua, pradent,
acute, intelliaent and honeat llie time
of the foundadon of Lyons is uncertBin.
Augustus made it the capital of Cdtie
Gaul, which received the name of Lugdnh-
nenaia. In the reicn of Nero, it was
burned to the ground. In the mtti cen-
tury, the Burgundians made it theip capi-
tal In the twelfib century, the aeot of
Waldenses was founded by Peter de Vaod,
«a merchant of Lyonsi Italten fugitivea,
who came to seek refbge fifom t^ rage
of parties in their countiy, in the thirteenth
century, brought with them their arts and
wealth. Lyons sufifered much during the
religious ware of the sixteenth centmy,
and was recovering from its losses when
the revolution of the eighteenth again
covered it with desolation. The dtiswna
having risen against the terrorists^ in their
municipal government, and the Jacobin
club (May &, 1793), the convention sent
an army of 60,000 men againaf the de-
voted city, which, after a breve resistance
of 63 days, was taken. CoUot dUerbou
and Couthon erected the guillotine, en
penrummce^ and, dissatisfied mth this
slow method of execution, maasacred the
citizens, in crowds, with grape-dioL
The fortifications, and many buildingB,
were demolished, the name of Lyons
abolished, and that of Ville-Affianchie
substituted for it In 181^ it was die
theatre of aeveral bloody actions between
the French and the alli^i.

Lyons, Gulp of (GaOiau Sbmrn) ; a
bay of the Mediterranean, on the aoodi-
eastern coast of FVanoe, between kt 491*
W and 43^39 N., and between knua^
and 6^ SXy E. The principal pctli on

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LTON8» GULF OF'LTRICS.

les

Ihis golf a» Toulon, IfoneiUes and Gette.
It s now called, by tOe French wrUen,
€hift du Liouy tbo name being derived
fiom the agkation of its waters. (See

Ltrb ; the moat ancient stringed instru-
BMnt among the Egyptians and Greeks.
The mvthologicol tradition of tlie origin
of liie E^ptian lyre, the more ancient of
the two, 18 curious. Afler an inundation
of the Nile, a tortoise was left ashore
among other animals ; after its death, its
flesh decayed, and some of the tendons
were dried by the sun, so as to produce a
sound when touched by lieimes, as he
was walking on shore. He immediately
made an instrument in imitation of it, and
thus invented the lyre. Tliis lyre, origi-
nally, had but three strines. The Greeks
ascribed the invention of the lyre to their
Hermes (Mercury), the son of Jupiter
and Maio. (Paus, v.) But the Greeks
also say, that Hermes first used the shell
of a tortoise. According to otliers, Mer-
cuiy merely improved the invention of
the Egyptian. Diodonis tells us that
Apollo felt so much repentance for his
ouelty towards Marsyas, tliat he tore the
strings from his cltheni. The muses,
after this, invented a tone, and Orpheus,
Linus and Thamyras, one each. These,
being added to the thre^-stringed Egyp-
tian lyre, gave rise to the heptachord, or
sevenHssriuged lyre of the Greeks. The
invention of the instrument has also been
ascribed to each of its chief improvers. The
Egyptian and Grecian lyres were, at first,
strung with the sinei/vs of animals. The
num^r of the strings was at last increased
to eleven. It was played with the pltc-
Iruffi, or lyre-slick, of ivory or polished
wood, also with the fingers. The lyre
was called by different names — lifrajphor-
flitnx, chdifs, barbitos, barbiton^ cimara.
The bodv of the lyre was hollow, to in-
crease the sound. Few objects are so
graceful in form, and susceptible of such
various application in the fwe arts, as the
lyre, which is even yet used as a musical
instrument It is the symbol of Apollo,
yet other deities also bear the lyre ; and
mythology mentions many gods, who dis-
tinguished themselves on this instrument
It was played by educated Greeks in gen-
eral ; and Tbemistocles having once de-
clined plaviog when requested, he was
considered a person witliout cultivation.
*AfM*«i«0f (unmusicalj signified an illiieraU
man. In a work of^ Doni, entitled lAfra
Barberina^ the various forms of the lyre
are collected in two large volumes. — Lyric
WM^ origually, what belongs to the lyre;

it was applied to Mmgs sung to dio
lyre, odes, ttc, and soon came to desig-
nate a species of poetry contradistinguish-
ed from dramatic poetty, wliich was ac-
companied by flutes. (See Z^ric Poetry.)
LiRics. Lyric poetiy is that speaes
of poetiy by which the poet directly ex-
presses his emotions. The predominance
of feeling in lyric poetiy is what chiefly
distinguishes it from dramatic poetry, in
which action and character, independent
of the individual emotion of the poet,
predominate; and from epic poetry, of
which a series of actions and characters,
as contemplated and exhibited by the
poet, is the characteristic. No definite
limit can be readily drawn between such
departments of the art There may be
lyrical passages in an epic, or a drama, when
op|M>rtuiiJty is afforded to the poet to pour
out his own excited and exalted feeling ;
but it is an irregularity, and a dangerous
one. Poets of moderate talents, or httle
experience, are apt to burthen the reader
with themselves, unable to follow up the
representation of hfe in a form not indi-
vidually their own. Lyric poetry is more
limited than the drama (q. v.) and the
epic (q. v.), because feeling is limited to
the present; but, on this account, it is
more excited and stirring. From the na-
ture of lyric poetry, it has flourished bet-
ter at court than the dramatic and epic,
both of which, like history, require liberty,
because they must represent truly the
character of man in his manifold strivin|;8,
which cannot be done but by viewing hfe
unpartially,and depicting it freely ; whilst
the lyric poet, in most of his highest
efforts, aims to express his adoration, be it
of a hero, or his mistress, or nature, or
God ; and this tone coincides veiy well
with the adulation of courts. Hence,
when the drama and epic have gone^
down Willi the decay of national inde-
pendence and spirit,' and genius, debarred
from action, lives only in contemplation,
lyric poetj-y continues, and not unfre-
quently even flourishes, because man al-
ways feds ; admiration, love and hatred
camiot die. Even the slave may ex-
press in verse the accents of love or
adulation ; and religion, in all circum-
stances, is a never-failing spring of
elevated feeling. We must not sup-
pose, however, that every expression of
feeling, in verse, deserves the name of a
lyrical poem, although the mistake is a
very common one, as the crowds of un-
fledged aspirants to lyric honora testify.
It is necessifuy that the feeling represent-
ed should be itself poetical, and not only

Digitized by VjOOQIC

LTRSGS.-LT8ANDEB.

trartkjr to be pmaned^ but •eeompmiirf
bj a vaneQr of ideon, beauQr of iiiuigeiy,
and an ekrauent flow of language. One
distinct ieefing ahould predominate, giv-
ing tone to the whole: the feeling must
be worthy of- the subject which caused it,
emrespondiug to the same both in degree
and kind, and must he so exhibited as to
give a living picture of the poet's mind ;
while, at the same time, what is merely in-
dividual and accidental must be excluded,
80 that the poet shall be truly the repre-
sentative of bis race, and awaken the sym-
pathy of aU. But this requires genius of a
nigh order. From the nature of feeling
results the limited range of lyric poetiy,
and the variety of style and rhythm, ex-
hibited in ahiiost numberiess metres, the
bold sssociations of ideas, and the pecu-
liar iraagerv belonging to this species of
poetry. The tone of lyric poetry is
warmest if it expresses feeung called forth
by present circumstances. It is more
composed when it represents feelings
which are past The hymns of the an-
cients, the ode in general, the song and
hymn, with which are connected several
metriisal forms of die Italians and Span-
iards (aoanets, canzonif &C.), belong to the
£onaer; the epigram, in the Greek sense
of the term, tne elegv, &c., to the latter.
(See the various articles, and X^re.)

LvsAirnER ; a Spartan general, who ter-
minated the Peloponnesian war by the
conquest of Athens, B. C. 404. With the
activity, and ambition, and penetration of
Themistocles, he united the pliancy and
inmnusring address of Alcibiades. He

red more easily, and retained longer,
&vor of the great and powerful, than
Alcibiades did the hearts of women and
of the multitude. He sacrificed the wel-
fare of his countiy to his own ambition.
He used every means to elevate his
friends and rum his enemies. Justice
and truth to bun were empty words. He
used to say, that if one cannot accomplish
his purposes in a lion's skin, he must put
on the fox's. Force and fnud were nis
BoUtical instruments. In the court of
Cyrus the Younger, where he resided a
long time, he endured, without a murmur,
the haughtiuesB of the Asuitic satraps ;
and, soon after, he exhibited the same
airc^gance towards the Greeks. His ha-
tred was implacable, and his revenge terri-
ble. His ruling passion was ambition.
He destroyed the powerful city of Atiiens,
and conceived the plan of raising his
country to the summit of gieamess, at
the same tune that it was to be under
his own rule. He used every means to

mottmfXUk this ol^; lie eoUectad a
fleet, and repubed the Athenians^ who
kMt in the engagement 50 vessels. The
j^ofy of this victoiy he endeavored to
mcrease by intrigues. When, theiefm,
Callicratides, who succeeded him in flie
command, had been defeated by the
Athenian Conon, in an engagement near
Arginuaoe, in which he lost nis life, Ly-
saiuier, contrary to the established custom
of Sparta, was a second time appointed
admnal of the fleet He immediately
sought the Athenian fl^t, which VFas
much superior to the Spartan ; it lay at
anchor before iEgospotainoe. Only nine
of the ships escaped the fury of bis attack ;
one earned tiie news of the defeat to
Athens ; with the rest, Conon, the Athe-
nian admiral, escaped to Evagoras, king
of Cyprus. The remainder of the fleet
fell into the hands of the Spartans, almoet
without resistance, and Lysander sailed
with it into the port of Lampsacus in
triumph. He put to death the prisonen
(3000i with their generals, because they
had tnrown from a rock the crews of two
Corinthian vessels, and had determined to
cut off the right hand of all the Pelopon-
nesian prisoners. After this defeat, all
the Athenian allies went over to the Spar-
tans. In the cities and islands which had
surrendered, he abolished the democratic
government, and founded an oligarchy.
Witii a fleet of 180 ships, he tiien sur-
rounded Athens by sea, while Agis and
Pausanias enclosed it with a powerftU
army on land. Famine at length com-
pelled the Athenians to siurender. They
lost their independence, and considered
themselves happy that their city was not
destroyed. An oligarchy of 30 tyrants
was now established which was adminis-
tered with the most terrible cruelty. Ly-
sander then returned to Lacedaemon,
where his character was well undeivtood ;
yet the splendor of his victories, his extrsr
ordinary liberality, and his apparent disin-
terestedness, save him such an ascend-
ency tliat, in tact, if not in name, he was
sovereign of all Greece. Contrary to the
laws of Lycurgus, he brought into Spaita
immense sums of money, and valuable
treasures, and thus ruineid the Spartan
virtue. He now attempted to accomplish,
by artifice, his k)n||[HSonceived plan of de-
stroying the constimtion of his countiy,
by admittmg to the throne not only all
the Heraclidn^ but all native Spartan^
and, finally, aasuming the seeptre himadt
Apollo hln»elf was to have declared that
to secure the prosperity and hanpineas «
Spaita, ita woithieit oitiieBS abotiki ik

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XTBANDEa-LYSIMACHUS.

167

Qpoo fli6 dmno* But tfw uKUMnt that
tlie finod WB8 to Iuitb been committed
in die tempb at Ddphi, one of the
priesli retracted his consent, from lear
of the conaeaueoces, and frustrated the
Tvbole plot, altliough it was not discovered
mndl after tbe dnoh of Lysander, wh«i
the plan was fomid among his papen.
He was killed in a battle, in tbe Boeotian
war, in which he commanded the Spartan
forces fK C. 394). His merooiy was
honorea in Sparta ; lor the nation, blind
ID his guilt, regarded him as a yirtuous
dtizen^ since he did not enrich himself
but lived always in great poverty. His
life has been written by Plutarch.

Ltsiab ; an Athenian orator, who flour^
jshed between the 80th and 100th Olym-
piads, about 458 & C. His father, Cepha-
lu, was likewise an orator, of whom Plato
makes honorable mention in his Republic.
Soon after his Other's death, Lysias, then
in the 15ch year of his age, went to Thu-
riuro, in Magna Gnecia, to smdy jphiloso-
nhy and eloquence under . lisias and
Nicias of Syracuse. Having setded in
Thurium, he was employed in the gov-
ernment ; but, on the defeat of the Athe-
nians in Sicily, he was banished, with
many of bis counuymen. He returned
to Athens; but the 90 tyrants banished
him from diat city, and he retired to Meg-
ara. After Athens had recovered its
freedom, he exerted himself for the advan-
tue of the city, and even sacrificed much
or his properQr for the public welAre.
Yet, notwithstanding his generosity, the
rights of an Athenian citizen were never
ipvnted him. At first, he gave instruction
m eloquence; but, filing himself sur-
passed bv TheodoruB^ another teacher of
oraloiy, he devoted his time to writing
<iradons for otheia. He wrote more than
200^ some say 400, oradons; only 223»
however, were regarded as genuine. In
these he excelled all the orators of his time ;
and has rarely been surpassed by succeed-
ing orators. Dionysius praises the purity,
cleemeaB, conciseness and eleeance of his
expression, the beautiful simplicity of his
style, his knowledge of men, and his livelv
description of their peculiarities, andi
above all, his unparafleled grace. His
style is applauded as a perfect example of
the simple Attic eloquence. The effinis
of Lysus in pane^^nnc, however, ac-
cording to Dionyaus, were unsuccessful ;
he strives to be magiiificent and lofty, but
does not folly reach his object None of
these eulogies is extant, except the one
entitled EptfeiyvMof, and the genuineness
of this is oottDled ; hence we cannot fbnn

an opfailon of tiup ekn of his wmlcSL
Only 34 of his orations have come down
to our own timea: editions of tiiem have
been published by l^Lylor (London, 1730,
4tD. ; and Cambridge, 1740), Auger }Pari%
1783, 2 vok.), and Reiske (in the Collec-
tion of Greek Oratore). John GilUes, the
historian of Greece, translated the oratiom
of Lysias and Isocrstes, and accompa^ed
his translation with an Account of their
lives, and a Discourse on the History
and Mannen of the Greeks (London.
1778).

Ltbimachus ; son of Affathoclee^ a aen-
eral and friend of Alexander, in the divis-
ion of whose conquests he received a part
of Thrace. The inhabitants stubbornly
opposed his authority, and he was obliged
to conquer the countiy. After this, he
built the city of Lysimacbia, on die Thra-
cian Cheisonesus, aseumed the royal
title, like the other generals of Alexander,
and formed a league with some of them
against Antigonus, who had brought un-
der his own power the territories con-
quered by Alexander in Asia. After the
battie of Ipsus, in Pfarygia ^B. C. 301),
which cost Antigonus his hfe and hie
crown, Lysimachus became master of
Asia Minor, Cappedocia Proper, and all
tbe provinces between the Taurus and
the Antitaurua He next made war on
the nations on the bordera of Thrace, and
enlarged his territories by conquest In
attempting to subjugate the Getie, who
lived beyond tbe Danube, his son and
himself fell into their hands. He was
compelled to surrender, with his army, to
the buberians, who, with horrid cries, de-
manded his death. But their king treated
him more generously than the ambitious
Lysimachus dared to hope. He provided
for his prisoners an entertainment in the
manner of the Greeks, and left them their
own splendid furniture and utensils; his
own food, on the contrary, was mean,
and his vessels were all made of dav
or wood. After the meal was concluded,
he asked the captive monarch whether
the rude living of^ the Gettn, or the splen-
did banquets of his own country, seemed
to him most desuable, and advised him to
make peace with a nation fi^om whom so
little was to be gained, restored him hki
power, admitted him to his friendship,
and dismissed him without a ransom.
This generous conduct made a deep im-
pression on the ^rannical conqueror. He
restored to the kmg o^ the Get» the
countries which he had gained beyond
the Ister, and gave him his dau^ter in
marriage. From this tune, the power of

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LYSIMACHUS-LYTTLETOK.

Lysiraochus became more and more ex-
tended, till his domestic relations involved
him and bis kingdom in ruin. Having
put away his first wife, he married Arsin-
oe, a daughter of Ptolemy, who led him
.to commit many acts of folly, and even
prevailed upon him to murder Agathocles,
his son by his first wife, in order to secure
the succession to her own children. Tlie
virtues of Agathocles had gained him
'many powerful friends, who determined
to tsike vengeance uoon his weak and
cruel father. They fied to Seleucus, and
engagivl him in a war against Lysima-
. chus. Seleucus conquered all Asia Minor
almost without a blow. A general battle
was fought at Courepedium, in Phrygia,
and, after a valiant resistauce, Lysimachus
was totally defeated and slain, B. C. 28^
in the 74th year of his age.

Ltsifpus; a sculptor, who flourished
in Sicyon, about 330 B. C., in the time of
Alexander the GreaL Alexander would
permit no one but Apelies to paint his
portrait, and no one but Lysippus to make
Lis statue. The statues of Lysippus were
principally portraits. He was first a cop-
persmith, and afterwards devoted himself
to sculpture. The painter Eupompus,
whom he asked what master be should
follow, told him to follow nature. His
statues were wrought with much ^greater
beauty and elegance than those of his
predecessors. He made the body more
slender; the head smaller 4 the hair more
natural, flowing and delicate ; he avoided
angularity, and endeavored to give to
eveiy part more roundness and softness
of outline. He used to say, he represented
men as diey appeared to his imagination,
but his predecessors represented them as
they really were. Even the minutest
parts were labored with the greatest care.
It is not known whetlier he executed any
marble statues, but' many in bronze are
still preserved. The most celebrate'^ are,
a man rubbing himself in a bath (^poxvo-
menus) ; several statues of Alexander,
representing him in all the different stii^es
of his life;, a group of Satyrs, which
was found at Athens ; Alexander and his
friends, a number of statues which were
intended to bear an exact resemblance to
the original; and a colossal Jupiter at
Tarentum.

Ltttlbtoii, Geoige, lord, an elegant
writer and historian, was the eldest son
of sir Thomas Lytdeton, baronet, of Hag-
ley, in Worcestershire, where he was
bom in January, 1709. In his 19th year,
he set out upon a tour to the continent, and,
on his return, in 1730, was chosen mem-
ber of parliament for Okehampton, and
concurred in the measures of the opposi-
tion, led by Pitt and Pulteney. When
Frederic, prince of Wales, fonned a sepa-
rate court, in 1737, he was appointed his
secretary. On the expulsion of Walpole,
he was appointed one of the lords of the
treasury; but, although he spoke with
elegance and fluency, his oratory wanted
force, and he never attained the rank of a

Eolidcal leader. In early lifb, he had im-
ibed sceptical opinions ; but, being sub-
sequently led into a conviction of me di-
vine origin of Christianity, he composed
his well-known Dissertation on the Con-
version of St. Paul, first printed in 1747.
About this time he lost his first wife, on
whom he wrote the celebrated monody,
and, in 1749, married a lady from whom,
after a few years, he separated by mutual
consent In 1751, he succeeded his fii-
ther in his title and ample estate, and, by
bis elegance and taste, rendered Hagley
one of the most delightful residences in the
kingdom. At the dissolution of the min-
istry, he was raised to the peerage by the
tide of baron Lyttleton, of Frankley, in
the county of Worcester. From this
time, he lived chiefly in literary retire-
ment, and, in 1760, published his Dia-
logues of the Dead. The latter yeare of
his life were chiefly occupied in his His-
tory of Henry II, v/hich is the result of
assiduous research, but too prolix. He
died in Augjiist, 1773, in the 6ith year of
his age, leaving a son, who succeeded him
in his tides, and, witii great talents, be-
came conspicuous for a conduct entirely
opposite to that of his father. The poems
of lord Lyttleton maintain a pFace among
the collection of British poets, for their
correct versification, and delicacy of senti-
ment, rather than for higher qualities. His
miscellanies, in prose, also display good
taste, and a cultivated mind. His works
were first collected and printed in 1774,
4to., and since in 8vo. (See Johnson's
Lives qf ike Poets.)

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II-4IAB.

16»

M ; the 19th letter aud the 10th conso-
DantinthcEngrish alphabet, a labial, pro-
duced by a slight expiration with a com-
pi-esBion of tlie lir^s. It is one of the liquids
or semi- vowels, and was not therefore con-
sidered by the Romans a consonant ; but
was very faintly pronounced,rather as a rest
between two syllables, than as an articu-
late letter (Qutnt ix. 4), which explains
why it was subject to elision. 1. It is one
of the first letters which children learn to
pTT^nounce, in connexion with the easy
▼owel a. (See ^,) 2. It passes easily
into other letters, losing itself in the pre-
ceding or succeeding letters— a circum-
stance which the etymologist must bear
in mind, in seeking the derivation or con-
nexion of words having an m in their
TCiot ; dius, for instance, the German
ffanee (cheek) is the ancient Mangotiy
and ttie middle Latin gives hombarius as
well as hoharius. The Italians use o for
the Latin tan, at the end of words. We
even find the m suppressed at the end of
words, on some ancient medals and in-
scriptions; thus, on the medals of the
^inilian and Plautian femUies, we find
FREIVERNV. CAPTV. ; on odiera,
AVGVSTORV. If the m is fully pro-
nounced, the sound passes partly through
the nose, as is also the case with n. Hence,
in French, it is nasal at the end of a word,
as in parfum, /aim, some foreign words
ex|^pted, as Mraham, Jenualmu The
mm of the Hebrews, as a pumeral, signi-
fied 40 ; the same was the case with the
Greek f^' ; ,fi, however (characterized by
the stroke before i\\ sigiiified 40,000. In
Latin, it signified lOOO: the original de-
signation of this number was double D
or (CIO)* which gradually became an M.
MM denotes 2000, and M 1,000,000, or a
thousand thousand. In numismatics, M
stands for a great number of words ; for
Macedonia^ as LEG. M.^ XX. ^'^gj^
Maeedomca Ficesima ; MaUa, Massuia,
Mamaimif and many other places or
countries ; for Marcus, Mwfdius, Mcarcd^
iitf, and other names ; for magma, hiUi-

iarii, mmH$, maut, magiHer, &c. ; EQ.
M. for eqtdhim magister. M. D. signifi€»
medicifUE doctor (doctor of medicine) ; A.
M, artium magisUr (master of arts) ; M8.
manu acrtjvfttm (manuscript]; MSS. (manu-
scripts). D. O. M. signifies Deo Optimo
maximo (To the best and greatest God, or.
To the Most HigW. On tombs, D. M. ^«.
means Dttt Mambus Sacrum, M stands
for noon, from the Latin meridies. Hence
F.M.post meridiem (afternoon); A. M.
ante meridiem (forenoon). In medicine, it
signifies miace or miaceaiur ,- also mampu-
lus(& hand full). On modem coins, it
si|^ifies — 1. the mint of Toulouse ; 2.
wjth a small o over it, Mexico ; 3. with a
crown, Madrid. M, in French, often
mands for Monsieur; MM. for Mes-
sieurs. In music, it is used for the Italian
words meno (less), mono (hand), mezzo and
moderato (moderatej. jifc stands, in Scotch
and Irish names, tor Mac (q. v.). M is
likewise used by printers for the unit of
measure of printed matter. Types of the
same fount have bodies of equal thick-
ness in one direction, and the 8C|uare of
this dimension is used in determining the
amount of nrinted matter in a given sfmcc,
as a page for instance, and is termed an m.
Mab ; the queen of the fairies, so fanci-
fully described by the sportive imagina-
tion of Shakspeare, in Romeo and Julier.
Chaucer spealcs of a king and queen of
Fayrie, but seems to attnoute the royal
dimity to Proserpine and Pluto. The
ongin of the more amiable Oberon and
Titania or Mab (if they are not the same)
is uncertain. Poole, in his Parnassus
(1657), thus describes the Fairy court:
Oberon, the emperor ; Mab {amaJbUis), the
empress ; Perriwiggin, Puck, Hobgoblin,
Tom Thumb, &c., courtiers ; Hop, Mop,
Drop, Tib, Tit, Tin, Tick, Pip, Trip, Skip,
&c. &C., maids of honor; Nymphidia,
mother of the maids. Puck is the em-
peror's jester. Drayton's Mpnpkidia, and
the Midsummer Night's Dream, are de-
lightful illustrations of the antiquities of
queen Mab's empire.

▼01- vni.

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MABILL0R-4IAGAO.

IIabilloh, J0I11I9 a leamed French
fienediotiiie of the congregatioii of Sc
Maur, a writer on ecclesiastical aotiqui-
tlee and diplomadoa, was born in 1632, in
Champagne and studied at the college of
Rheims. lie took the monastic vows in
1654, and, in 1660, was ordained a priest
After having assisted fiuher D'Acheri, in
his iS^?tdZeriiiiii, he edited the woiks of
St. Bernard ; and, in 1668, published tlie
first volume of the AdUi Sanctorum Or-
dims S. Benedidi, of which the ninth and
last Tolume appeared in 1703. One of
his most important productions is his
treatise De Rt DiplomaHca, Lib. vi (1681,
folio). He was sent to Italy, with a com-
mission (torn the king, to make a literary
collection ; and, returning to Fmnce with
books and MSS. for the royal library, he
published on account of his journey, d&c.,
under the title of Musaum talicwn (1687,
2 vols., 4to.). In 1701, he was cnosen a
member of the academy of inscriptions,
and, in that year, began to publish his
AnnaUa OrdinisS, Bei^idi, four volumes
of which appeared previously to his death,
in 1707. Father Mobillon was the author
of many other worira of research, distin-
guished for liberality of sentiment and
freedom of opinion, as well as for pro-
found learning.

Mablt, Gabriel Bonnot de, a French

S>litical and historical writer, was bom at
renoble, 1709, and died at Paris, 1785.
He was educated by the Jesuits at Lyons,
but as soon as he was at liberty to follow
bis inclination, he abandoned theok)gical
studies for Thucydides, Plutarch and
Livy. The yotmg abb^ now went to
Pans, where he was favorably received
by madame De Tencin, sister of the car-
dinal, to whom he was related, and soon
after published his ParaUde des Romaina
et dts Francois (1740), which was received
with applause, and obtained him the pat-
ronage of cardinal Tencin. That minister
employed Mably to write his memorials
and reports; and it was from minutes
drawn up by himself for the use of the
cardinal, that Mably prepared his Drmi
pMicdePEuropefondiaurUsThxiUs, He
was appointed, in 1743, to carry on the
secret negotiations witJ^ the Prussian am-
bassador at Paris, with whom he con-
cluded a treaty against Austria. The in-
structions of the French minister at the
coogress of Breda (1746) were drawn up
by mm. Notwithstanding this prospect
of success in politics, a misunderstanding
with the cardinal induced him to retire
from affairs, and devote himself to study.
The tone of his subsequent publications

IB somewfaat difierent fimn that of hia
PandUk. Amonff them are Oburvationg
aur rHiitoire de m Orke ; Obaervationa
nor k$ Rommna (1751) ; JSntrrtiens da
Phoeum (in which he gives his ideas of
virtue, patriotism, and me mutual obliga-
tions 01 the state and the citizens towaras
each other] ; (MtaervaHona aurV^almrt de
Franoa (of^ which an edition has lately
been published by Guizot, with notes) ;
EntreLiena aw VIEatoirt, His complete
works appeared at Paris, in 1794, 15 vols.
His style is easy, pure, often elegant, but
tame ; his views often partake of the as-
perity of his temper.

Mabuse, or Maubeuzc, John de, an
able artist, was bom at Maubeuze, a vil-
lage of Hainault, in 1492, and studied the
works of the great masters in Italy. His
habits were so dissipated, that the patience,
fidelity and ijeauty with which his pieces
were executed, were doubly remancable.
He painted a gi^at aluir-piece, represent-
ing the descent from the cross, for a
church in Middleburg ; but the church
and the picture were destroyed by light-
ning. Another descent from the cross, by
him, is still at Middleburg. His irregu-
larity occasioned his imprisonment in this
place ; and, during his confinement, he
painted several fine pieces, which ore lost.
He afterwards went to England, and
painted several pieces for Henry VIII.
Several excellent works of his are at Mid-
dleburg ; the best of which is the altar-
piece, representing the descent from the
cross. Having received a piece of rich
brocade, in order to appear before the
emperor Charles V, he sold it at a tavern,
and painted a paper suit so exceedingly
like it, that the emperor could not be cou^
vinced of the deception, until he exam-
ined it with his own hands. He died in
1562.

Macaber ; according to some, an eoriy
German poet, author of a woric entitled
the Dance of Death, or, the DancA>f
Macaber, conasdng of a series of dia-
logues between Death and a number of
personages belonging to various ranks of
society. Others suppose the word merely
a corruption of the Arabic mogiaroA, a
cemeteiy. (See Ihaik, Dance of,) An
English tronsladon of these dialogues was
published by Dugdole and Dodsworth, in
the 3d volume of the Mondaticon Angli
canum ; and French and Latin ver^ons
have been repeatedly printed.

Macao, Gnina, in Quang-tong ; Ion.
113^ 35^ E. ; laL 22« 13^ N. This tovm
is teilt on a peninsula, or rather on a
small island, which has an area <j^ 106

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MACAO-^IACAULBr.

171

aquara miks, and oooliuiis 33^800 inlwbi-
tanlfi. It 18 the ooly European setUemeDt
in China, and was ceded to the Porta-
ffueae in 1580. (See India, Pwiugue$e.)
The Portugueae fortified the place, ana
auRounded it with strong walla. Macao
haa a Portuguese governor, and a Cliinese
mandarin ; and the English and other nar
tioiia have ftctories here. The houses are
of atone, btiUt after the European man-
ner; but they are low, and make little
allow. Tlie city ia defended by three
form, built upon eminences ; its works are
good, and well planted with artillery. It
was formerly a place of ilie greatest im-
portance, being the centre of Uie trade of
the Portuguese in^the eaatem part of
Asia. Since the decline of the Portu-
guese trade, the town has sunk into a
1>iace of comparatively little imjportance.
n the garden of the English fiictoiy is
shown a cave, called the grotto of Camoens
(q. v.L in which he is said to have com-
poeea the LusiatL

Macartht, sir Charles ; an Irish officer,
who commanded at Cape Coast, in 1821.
Whilst making preparations to repel the
Aahantees, the king sent his compliments
to him^ and said he hoped to have his
head, aa an ornament to his great war-
drum. In 1823, sir Charles marched
against the Ashantees, with a mixed force
of Europeana and blacks, the latter of
whom ran away, aud, the whites being
<lefoated,theur commander was captured by
the victor, who ferociously realized his
menace, January 21, 1824. In a subse-

Suent batde, the Ashantecs were entirely
efeated, and this barbarous trophy was
recovered and conveyed to the relations
' of sir Charles.

Macartnct, George (earl Macartnev),
the son of a gentleman of Scottish cfe-
scent, was bom in Ireland, in 1737, and
educated at Trinity college, Dublin ; afler
which he became a studeut of l,he Tem-
ple. In 17G4, he was appoiuted envoy
extraordinary to Russia, afterwards be-
eame secretary to the lord-lieutenant of
Ireland, and was created knight of the
Bath. In 1775, he was made captain-gen-
end and governor of the Caribbee islands,
Granada, the Grenadines and Tobaso.
Crrenada was invaded and taken by.uie
French, and the governor was sent a pris-
oner to France. On his return to Eng-
land, ha was appointed to the presidency
of Madras, having previously received an
Iridi peerage. On his erobtuay to China,
in 179i2, he conducted with great address,
and auoceeded in the chief object of his
His only aubaequent public lit-

nation was that of governor of tha cape
of Good Hope, whence he rsturaad, on
account of ill health, in 1797. He died
March 31, 1806. His En^^lish ewklom
was.beatowed on him for ms servicea in
China. Lord Macarmey was the author
of a Journal of hia Chinese embassy,
and other pubhcationa. (See Staunton'a
Embassy to Ckina^ and Barrow's I^c qf
Lord Jnacmimjf.]

MACASSAa ; a city of Celebes, on the
south-west coast, capital of a kingdom
called Macassar or onny ; Ion. 11§° 5(K
E. ; lat 5^ ICX S. ; population, according
to llassel, 100,0U0. This town is the
chief settlement of the Dutch on the
island, aud called by them FM IMerdam,
The town is built on a neck, or point of
land, at the mouth of a river which forms
a harbor, with water enough for a ship to
come within cannon shot of- the walls.
The town is large ; the houses are of
wood, bulk on piles, to guard against in-
undations. The country round about is
level and beautiful, abounding with plan-
tations and ^ves of cocoa-nut trees. At
a distance inland, the country rises into
hills of great height, and becomes rude
and mountainous. (See Easi india Omr
party J Dutch,)

Macassail, Straits of ; the channel
or narrow sea between Celebes and Bor-
neo, about 350 milea long, and fiom 110
to 140 wide, except at the north entrance,
where it is contracted to 50 miles.

Macaulet, Catherine, or Graham, the
name of her second husband, was bom in
Kent, at the seat of her fatlier, John Saw-
bridge. She was well educated, and be-
came early attached to the perusal of liis-
tory. In 1760, she married doctor Georae
Macauky, a physician, and, in 1763, pub-
lished the first volume (4to.) of her History
of Enaland from the Accession of James
I to that of the Brunswick line. This
was Qontinued, in successive volumes, to
the eighth, which completed the ivoric, in
1783. The spirit of this history is almost
purely republican. The other works of
Mrs. Macauley are. Loose Remarks on
some of Mr. Hobbes' Posidoiis ; an Ad-
dress to the People of England on the
present Important Crisis (1775) ; a Trea-
tise on the Immutability of Moral Truth,
afterwards republished, with additional
matter, under the title of Letten on Edu-
cation (1790). Her kust publication was a
LeUer to Earl Stanhope, in reply to the
opinions of Burke on the French Revolu-
tion (1791). In 1785, Mra. Macauley mar-
ried a young man of the name of Gra-
haaa, and the dispaiily of thev agea wb-

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179

MACAULET— BIAOCARONL

jected Imt to orach ridicule. She paid a
visit to geoeFBl Washingtoo, in Ainerica,
in 1785, and died in 1791.

Macaw. These magnificent birds be-
long to the parrot tribe, and are distin-
guished by having their cheeks destitute
of feathers, and the feathers of the tail
Jong. They fomi the sub-genus ara.
They are only found in the tropical re-
gions of South America. They prefer
moist situations, fix>m tlie palm growing in
such spots, of the fruit of whicli they are
vcfy tond. They usually go in pairs ;
sometimes, however, they assemble, in the
morning and evening, in great numbers.
Although they fly well, they seldom wan-
der far, except in quest of food, and reg-
ularly return in the evening. They build
their nests in the hollow of rotten trees,
and lay twice^ in the year, generalW two
eggs at a time. The male and female
share alternately in the labor of incuba-
tion and rearing the young. When
young, they are easily tamed, and soon
grow fiuniliar with persons whom they
frequently see. But, like all the parrot
tribe, they have an aversion to strangers,
and particularly to children. In a domes-
ticated stato, they will feed on almost eve-
ry article, but are especially fond of su-
gar, bread and fruits. They do not masti-
cate the latter, but suck them by pressing
their tongue against the upper mandible.
Like the other parrots, these birds use
their claws with great dexterity, though, in
climbing, they always begin by taking
hold with their bill m the first instance,
using their feet only as a second point of
their motion. Wheu they were first car-
ried to Europe, their peat beauty and
size caused them to be m much request,
and they were conmdered as valuable

C resents between sovereign princes. This
ird was spoken o( by Alurovandus, as
early as 1572.

Macbeth lived about the middle of
the eleventh century. He served a^inst
the Danes as general of his relation Dun-
can I or Donald VII, king of Scotland.
The Danes were completely defeated, and
Macbeth now conceived the idea of ob-
taining possession of the Scottish throne.
He appears, like most men in his time, to
have believed in the predictions of the
pretenders to supernatural knowledge. On
nis return from his victory over the Danes,
three old women met him with the in-
signia of the witches of that period, and
suuted him — the first, as thane of Glamis ;
the second, as thane of Cawdor ; the
third, as aliout to be king of Scotland.
The two fint prediotioni being almost

inunediately fhlfiUed, Maebeth was led to
hope for the accomplishment of thelaat,
and, afier brooding over the subject fer a
time, detennined to assassinate the king ;
and perpetrated Aie crime when the king
was viating him at his castle of Inverness.
The king's sons were obliged to save
themselves by flight ; and Macbeth brought
the nation to favor his cause, by liberality
to the nobility, and by strict justice in his
administraiion. For 10 years^ he reigned
with nooderation ; but, after this period, he
suddenly became a ^rant His first vic-
tim was Banauo, who had been privy to
the murder or the king. Feeling iuficcure,
he erected a casde on Dunsinane, from
which he could overlook the whole coun-

S\ This is the legend, which has been
opted by poetry. But history shows
no such person as fianquo ; Duncan was
slain near Elgin, and not in Macbeth's
own casde ; and Macbeth, though he as-
cended the throne by violence, had in fact
a better claim to it than Duncan, and was
a firm, just and equitable prince. Mac-
dufl; thane of Fife, fled to England, and
urged Malcolm, the son of the murdered
Duncan, to take vengeance. Assisted by
Siward, earl of Northumberland, they re-
turned to their country. Macbeth was
defeated, fled to his castle, and was slain
in the 17th year of his reign, A. D. 1057.

Maccabees ; two apocryphal books of ,
the Old Testament, which contain the '
history of Judas sumamed Maccabeus,
and his brothers, and the wars which they
sustained against the kings of Syria, in de-
fence of their religion, and the indepen-
dence of their country. (See Jaos.) Tlie
author and the age of these books are
uncertain. The council of Trent placed
them among tlie canonical books, but tlie
Protestants have rejected them as apocry-
phal

Maccaroni, Macaroni or Macciiero-
Ni ; a preparation of fine flour, which
forms a fiivorite article of food among the
Italians. It is eaten in various ways,
generally simply boiled, and served
up with grated cheese. Maccaroiu is
generally made in pieces resembling a
long pipe handle, of small diameter ;
sometimes, however, in other shapes, as
flat, square, &c. It is a wholesome food,
and a national dish of the Italians, par-
ticularly of the Neapolitans. It is niade^
best in the neighborhood of Naples, whole
villages living almost solely by the manu-
fiicture ; anc^ '^ Naples, it is continually
sold in the streets, cooked for the lower
classes, paiticulariy for the Uazanm L The
pieces being very long» and being heU ia

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BIACCARONI--MACCHIAVELLL

the ibcen during the procesB of eating
some will is required to manage them.
This feahion of eating vard-ioDg macca-
nmi, forms a subject of ridicule against
the Neapolitans, in more than one Italian
comedy. The modes of cooking macca-
roni are various ; the simplest are the best.
The fashion of cutting it into pieces, and
stewing it with eggs, &c., as is d^ne in
England and the U. States, is not to be
recommended. Maccaroni is well made at
Aix in France, and pretty well in Grer-
many. — Maecarom is also used as a teim
o€ contempt for a coxcomb—Aomo crasBit

4flflC7*IMB.

BLlccakonic Pobhs ; a kind of face-
tious Latin poems, in which are inter-
speraed words firom other languages, with
Latin inflections. They were first written
by Teofilo Folengi, under the name of
Merlino Coecaioy a learned and witty Ben-
edictine, bom in 1484, at Mantua. He
was a contemporary and friend of Sa-
nazzario. Ferdinand of Gonzaga, with
whom he resided 10 years in Sicily, was
his patron, and Folengi often celebrates
his praises. He spent the rest of hb
days in a monastery at Bassano, where he
died in 1544. Various grave and religious
poems of his, in Italian and Latin, are still
extant, and are not without value. He is
regarded by the Italian poets as the in-
ventor of heroi-comic poetry. His prin-
cipal poem in this style was called Mae-
carmuoj because it was mixed up of Latin
and Italian, as maccaroni is made of va-
rieus ingredients. An edition of this po-
em, printed in 1^1, is still exumt In
imitation of Viigil, he carries the hero
of his poem, through numerous circum-
stances, and, at last, to the infernal regions.
Here, among other things, he sees the
punishment of poets. For every untruth
or exaggeration in their works, devils
were appointed to extract a tooth, which
grew agun every day. This poem con-
tains manv satirical accounts or the man-
ners of the age, with beautiful passages
in genuine Latin verse. Besides this, he
wrote a smaller comic poem, entitled Mos-
iheOy or the War of tiie Gnats and the Em-
mets-^ youthful production; also Ec-
logues and Epistles ; all in the maccaronic
style. Heinsius (ThO^ 4th oart, p. 171)
, mentions a German poem of^ this sort— >
FUnOf Cofivm venicaie de FUns nmrHbuSj
tttit Deirieutis qwt omnea fere Min9choSj
MamyM, ffeibras^ Jung/nUf &c^ hthnmerty
H Spiixibua iuU sehnqfiia sUeken d otfere
solaii ; Auion ChiphMo Krdekknackia
tx FtoUmdia(aDXko 15b3»4ta), of which he
gives the introduction. A new edition of
IS*

this woric appeared in 1899, at Hamm ;
and a translation at Leipstc, in 18SS7. We
find an example of French macearonio
verses m the tnird interiude of Moli^re^
Malade tnmmasre. It was introduced
into England in the reicn of Henry VII,
when Skelton exhibitecr some specimens
of it It was ftshlonable under Elizabeth,
in whose reign a poem on the Armada,
of which Warton gives a specimen, was
written. Drummond also wrote a mac
caronic poem, of which the following will
be a sufficient specimen : —
Corwocat extemplo burrowmcomo9 atmte ladttot,
Jaekmammmque hirematmat, pUughdnptHen «t^

que pltughmanmof,
7\tnMatUes&ue timulf rtcoio ex kiukme bcyoe,
Nunc qui dirti/erae tersii cum dUKcUmbf dUh*
' aty &€.
Macchiaveij.1, Niccol6. It is not easy
to determine a man's disposition and char«
acter from his writings. When, however^
as was the case in the governments of an-*
ti(}uitv and the Italian republics of the
middle a^es, a man's writing are more
the ofispnng of his political smiation than
mere exercises of his intellect, and espe-
cially if thev coincide with his conduct^
they afford mir grounds for judging of the
author's character. This is the case with
Niccol6 Macchiavelli, the &mou8 Floren-*
tine sccretaiT. The prejudices against
him, arising from an incorrect understand^
ing of his treatise called E Principe (tho
Prince), have caused him to be regarded
as the teacher of a detestable line of poU
icy, called from him MaeehiavtUiam, in^
tended to enable despotism to perpetuate
its existence by finaud and violence, though
there are few men on record who have
shown so much of a truly civic spirit — ^He
was bom at Florence, in the year 1469, oC
a noble fiimily, whose members had en^
joyed the highest dignities in the repubhc^
Littie is known of his youth, and nothing
of his education, except that he studied
under Marcellus Yirgilius. On account
of his distinguished talents, he was very
early appointed chancellor of the Floren^
tine republic, and, not lonff afterwards^
was advanced to the post of secretary of
state, for which reason he is most com-^
monty called jS^7>etorio /Yoren<tno« When
Florence had recovered her liberty, by the
expulsion of the Medici (see Jihthci], and^
from fear of the exiled family, had become
involved in the ambitious wars and in«
trigues of Charles VIII, at a time whm
great political adroitnees, and a Sj^rk of
genuine republicanism, weie re^iuwed in
her envoys^ MoechiaTeUi was seveial
times charged with UEnymrtant emhassiesk
He was four tunes plenipotentiary at tho

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174

HACCfilAVELU.

French cdurt, twice at that of the pope,
and twice, also, at that of the emperor
Manmilian. The republic ackDowledged
his great services, but rewarded them
sparingly, so that he was sometimes
obliged to petition the signaria (supreme
authority of the state) on account of his
poverty. His advice was of great use to
the commonwealth, at the time of the in-
surrection of Val di Chiana. The leading
principles of his counsels, at this juncture,
may oe deduced from his numerous let-
tera, preserved in the Florentine archives.
They were to maintain a peaceful and
friendly spirit in the settlement of difficul-
ties, to provide for an upright and strict
administration of justice, to make the bur-
den of taxes as tight as possible, and to
keep a watchful eye on tne smallest cir-
cumstances that had relation to pubhc
concerns. Even in regard to military
aflairs, the state was so convinced of the
sagacity of his views, that they preferred
his counsel to any other. Amone other
things, a Tuscan legion was esttSilished
by his advice. This band, at a later peri-
od, distinguished itself remarisably under
the command of Giovanni de' MedicL
When pope Julius II had succeeded in
establishing a league in Italy against the
overwhelming power of the French, Louis
XII, to revenge himself, and wound the
dignity of the pope in the tenderest point,
attempted to assemble a council in Italy,
and requested the Florentines to allow
Pisa, which had become again subject to
them, to be the place of meeting. Mac-
chiavelli feared the papal thunders, and
advised bis countrymen to evade the pro-
posal. He went with this view as envoy to
the king, but the king would not be refused.
Afler his return, he was sent to Pisa, to
watch the proceedings of the council, and
10 labor ibr its dissolution. Nevertheless,
the pope was so indignant against the
Florentines, that he formed an alliance
with Ferdinand of Arragon to deprive
them of their freedom, and, by their
means, the power of the Medici was re-
established. As'Macchiavelli had labored
incessantlv for the good of tlie republic,
Lorenzo de* Medici, now dictator of Flor-
ence, seized the opportunity, in spite of a
public decree, to strip him of his dignities.
He was afterwards accused of participating
in the conspiracy of the Boscoli and Cap-
poni a£[ainst the cardinal Giovanni de'
Medici, imprisoned, put to the torture, and
banished; all which he endured with a
firmness approaching to indifference.
After the carainal became pope (Leo X),
his punishment was remitted. He return-

ed to bis native country, and wrote his
discourses on the ten first books of Livy ;
also his Prince, which he dedicated to
Lorenzo de' Medici. Upon this, he was
received again into tavor by this powerful
fiunily; and cardinal Julius, who ruled
Florence in the name of Leo X, and oar-
nesdy desired to reform the condition of
the mace, availed himself of the advice
of Macchiavelli, in extinguishing various
civil commotions. He was suspected of
being concerned in a new conspiracy
against the Medici; but the only conse-
quence was, that he was obhged to return
to private life and to indigence. When
Juhus, under the name of Clement VII,
ascended the papal chair, Macchiavelli
was a^ain employed in public business:
in parucular, he was sent to aid the allied
forces of the pope and the Florentines in
the defence of Tuscany against the army
of Charies V. The confidence now re-
posed in him by the Medici alienated
from him the afifections of the Florentines ;
and, after his return to Florence, he died,
June 22, 1527, neglected and poor. It
appears, from the letters of his son Pietro
to Francisco Nelli, that he manifested on
his death-bed the feelings of a Christian.
The account of the inaccurate Paolo Gio*
vio, that he died a suicide and an atheist, is
not to be depended on. — ^The writings of the
immortal I* lorentine may be arranged un-
der four heads, — ^history, politics, belles-
lettres, and military treatises. His eight
books on the history of Florence, written
at the command of Clement VII, begin
with the year 1215, and end with Lorenzo
de' Medici, in the year 1492. They are
among the first historical works of mod-
em times, which deserve to be placed
side by side with the beautiful remains of
antiquity. Macchiavelli was probably
prevented by death 1arom completing this
work, and is said to have left bis collec-
tion of materials to Guicciardini. The
history is distinguished for its pure, ele-
gant and flowing style : its impartiahty is
doubtful. The Life of Castniccio Castra-
cani, lord of Lucca, is more moperly a
romance than a biography. The hero,
who is as great a villain as Caesar Borgia,
is continually quoting apothegms mm
Plutarch. Under the head of politics are
included his two most important work»--
the Prince (of which more will be said
hereafter! and the Discourses upon the
ten first books of Livy. His purpose, in
these last, is to show how a republic notay
be supported, and bow it is exposed to
ruin. The work breathefs throughout, a
warm love of freedom* Filippo Norii

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MACCHIAVELLL

175

niBtaB, in hifl oomiiieiitarieijy that Bfacchi-
aTeDi was induced to wnte tfaeae dia-
cotmes, and thoae on the Art of War, by
a number of young men who were accus-
tomed to astsemble with him in a garden
in Florence, and had been made republi-
cans by the perusal of the ancients. Mon-
tesquieu and Rousseau have both drawn
fireely fit>m these works. In a treatise,
composed in the year 1519, upon a
reformation in the state of Florence, he
advises the pope Leo X to restore the re-
publican form of government to this city,
although he pretends to have the aman-
dizement of the Medici in view. tfSs ob-
ject in the seven books on the Art of War
was, to show the Itblians that they were
able to recover their freedom without the
assistance of the foreign mercenaries, so
generally employed in the states of Italy ;
and he shows himself fully sensible of the
great importance of infantry, then little
valued. Frederic the Great knew and
esteemed this treatise. For the restoration
of the comic drama, also, the world is in-
debted to the Florentine secretary. His
comedies, La Mandragola and La Oiaaa,
are the first regular dramas written since
the time of the Romans. Voltaire prefer-
red the first to any of the plays of Aris-
tophanes. His other poems are full of
thought The novel entitled BeUagor is
very fine, and has been versifiea by La
Fontaine. His description of the pesti-
lence, which raged in Florence in the
years 1522 — 3, may be compared to
the similar account in Thucydides. He
has written, also, many other treatises, all
of which show the great man, and sev-
eral poema Amone nis papers is a con-
stitution for the regulation of a gay com-
pany, called Compagnia di Piacere. The
rrince has been oflen translated. The
opinions on this work are very various.
Some persons condemn it as intended to
instruct tyrants in the art of oppression.
This idea originated with the archbishop
of Consa, Ambrosio Catarino, long after
the book was given tojlie worid. Bayle,
in his fiimous dictionary, and Frederic the
Great, in his Anti-Macchiavelli, which
was translated, together with the Prince,
by the order of Mustapha III, are of the
same opinion. But they mistake Macchi-
avelli's moaning, for his other writings, as
well as his life, prove that he loved liberty
ardently. Others consider the Prince as
a satire ; but this is impossible. The tone
of the work is most serious throughout:
no trace of satire can be discovered.
Others think it a work fiill of valuable
couuael for princes^ but infected with a

looaeneflB of morak which prevailed In the
age of the writer: but MacchiavelH hated
jfiezander VI, CsBsar Borgia, and all the
tyrants of his age ; and the full conadera^
Hon with which he advances his starding
principles, shows that they could not have
sprung from the unconscious influence
of his time. They are well weighed and
thoroughly understood. Others believe
that Macchiavelli's object was to make ty-
rants odious; but tyrants, such as he de-
scribes, need no coloring to make them
abhorred. Others maintain that Macchi-
avelli treated the question of tjrranny, in
the abstract, without reference to morality,
not in order to give advice, but as a mere
scientific question, on the ground of lord
Bacon, that *^ there be not any thing in
being or action which should not be
drawn and collected into contemplation
and doctrine;" just as a person might
write a treatise on poisons, investigatiiiff all
their effects, without touching on meir
antidotes. But could a mind like Macchi-
avelli's, if his object had been merely sci-
entific discussion, have contemplated, long
and closely, crimes so shocking to his \ov6
of hberty, without ever betraymg his hor-
ror ? Could we believe a man to i

a pure spirit, who could write a lon^ and
scientific treatise on the seduction of inno-
cence, as skilful in its way as Macchia-
velli's in his, though such a treatise might
afford much interesting analysis of the
sprinffs of human conduct? In our opin-
ion, the Prince must be considered as a
work written' for a certain purpose, time
and peraon, although particular questions,
doubtiess, are oflen treated abstractly, and
the application lefl open. As a whole, the
Prince is not to be considered, originally,
nor in its execution, as a mere scientinc
treatise. Many questions are left undis-
cussed ; the titles of the chapters are often
of a general nature, while the chaptere
themselves are not. Macchiavelli's feel-
ing was, that union and fi?eedom from a
foreign yoke were even more important
than civil liberty; that they formed the
very elements of the life of a nation. In
the first part of his career, he had been
thoroughly Florentine in spirit, but his
misfortunes forced him to elevate his
views, to become Italian ; and, for the pur-
pose of saving Italy, he could have seen,
with patience, even Florence enslaved.
No noble-minded Italian has written or
sung, nnce Dante's di dolor osteUo^ with-
out giving vent to his grief for the unfoi^-
tunate condition of his beautiful country ;
and Macchiavelli,one of the noblest spirits
of Italy, burned to see her united and

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176

HACCHIAVELU-^MACDONALD.

freed from foreignen. He louglit the
cure of Italy; yet her state apomed to
him 90 desperate, that he was bold enough
to prescribe poison. But h must be kept
in mind that he doeq not advise all the
measures which he discusses. He often
treats them like mechanical principles in
the abstract, and leaves the consideration
of their expediency in practice to him
who wishes to make the application. Un-
doubtedly Maccliiavelli beheved that many
thinjps are permitted for the purpose of
uniQng a distracted countzy, which would
be criminal in any other case ; and, to de-
termine the true spirit of his fiimous work,
the reader should have a full knowl-
ed^ of the history of the age. If he had
wntten at the present day, he m^ist have
recommended very different means. In
the last chapter of the Prince, he calls upon
Lorenzo of Medici to save his country.
Lorenzo was the nephew of pope Leo A.
Julian, brother to Leo, was expected to
become king of Naples, while Lorenzo,
a man of a vmarlike and fierce spirit, was
expected to unite the countzy between the
Tuscan and Adriatic seas, and to found a
kingdom of Tuscany. On him all eyes
were turned, and him it was Macchiavelli's
purpose to urge to the deliverance of Italy.
Macchiavelli was &r from beinr alone in
expecting salvation for Italy only from a
conquering king. Polydore Virgil, in
1526, when he dedicated his work Dt
Prodigiis to Fmncesco Maria of Urbino,
expre«ed this opinion. JTwenty years
earlier, John Anthony Flaminius said
the same to pope Julius ; and Varchi
says, ** Italy cannot be tranauil until ruled
by one prince." Some or the b^ ob-
servations on Macchiayelll are to be found
in a work probably litde known to our
readers,— -professor Ranke's Zur Krilik
neuerer Geschichtschreibar (Berlin and
Leipsic, 1824). — In regard to Macchiavel-
li's personal character, even his enemies
acknowledffe tliat he was kind and afiable,
a friend of the virtuous, industrious and
brave. He was one of the greatest think-
ers of his age, indefkti^ble in the service
of his country, and frugal in his manner
of life. He well deserves the inscription
placed over his tomb in the church of
Santa Croce, m Florence —

Tanto nomini nuiUtrn j^r elogium,
Nicalaus MacchtcaotUi.

OHU An. A, P. V. MDXXVU.
The reader will recollect the stanza in
Childe Harold (canto 4, stanza liv), in
which his remains are described as lying
in company with those of Galileo, Miciiad
Angelo and AlfierL

MjLccmArzLLUUj hipofities; that sys-
tem of policy which overiooks eveiy law,
and makes use of an^ means, however
criminal, to promote its purposes. The
word originated from an erroneous view
of Macchiavelli's Prince. (See ^Ibedkia-
veUi)

^ Macdonald, Etienne-Jacques-Joeeph-
Alexandre, marshal and peer of France,
duke of Torentum, minister of state, and
ffnmd chancellor of the legion of honor, was
bom at Sancerre, in France, Nov. 17, 1765,
and descended fiom a Scotch Hisfaland
fiunlhr. His fiither fought, with 20 other
Macdonalds, at Culloden, in 1745, fbr the
Pretender, Charies Edward, kept him con-
cealed for many weeks, and afterwards
went to France. The youn^ Macdonald
entered the French service m 1784, and
was attached to the le^on of the lieuten-
ant-general count MaiUebois, which was
sent to Holland, to support the opponents
of the hereditary stadtholder. He em-
braced the principles of the revolution,
rose rapidly to the dignity of brigadier-
genend, in the war of 1792, and served
with distinction in 1794, under Pich^gru,
in the armv of the north in Holland and
East-Friesland. In 1796, he commanded
at DCtsseldorf and Cologne, as general of
division, soon after join^ the army of the
Rhine, and at lensth that of Italv, under
Bonaparte, where he established his mili-
tary reputation. After the peace of Campo-
Formio, he was In the army under Mr-
thier, which t6ok possession of Rome and
the States of the Church, and, as governor
of the latter, he declared Rome a repub-
lic. But Mack advanced to Rome with
50,000 men, and Macdonald was forced to
fall back with his troops to the army of
the French commander-in-chie^ Cliam-
pionnet The latter was soon strong
enough to venture an attack, and Macdon-
ald contributed essentially to the victo-
ries at Trento, Mohteroei, Baccano, Cahd
and Civiti-Castellana. Dec. 14, he march-
ed into Rome the second time. After the
removal of Chanltoionnet, in the spring of
1799, he was made eeneral of the French
army in Naples. While he was here car-
iring on war against cardinal RufTo and
the Calabrians, Suwaroff and Melas had
conquered Lombardy, and advanced to
Turin. By skilful marches, Moreau de-
fended the frontiera of France and the
passes to Genoa. He then advanced to
form a junction with Macdonald, who had
evacuated Lower Italy. But, instead of

Sursuing his march coverdy to Genoa,
lacdonald, ambitious to defeat the enemj
alone, marched through Modena, Fwnam

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MACDONALD-MACE.

177

and Piacenzay on the road to Voghenu
lie, indeed, droye the AustrianB, under
Hohenz^Ueni, from their position at Mo-
dena, June 12, 1799; but Suwaroff and
Melaa punned him oyer the Tidone, June
17, and at Trebia, not far from Piacenza,
on the 18th and 19th, totally defeated
hid army, exhausted with long marches
and bloody actions. Macdonald was
wounded, and obUged to retire to Tuscany,
with his army reduced to 22,000 men.
Moreau now restrained the conaueror
from further pursuit, and Macdonala sue-
ce^ed in ascending the Apennines, and
forcing his way along the coast to Genoa,
to Moreau. Soon a&r, he went to Paris,
and cooperated in the reyolution of the
18th Brumaire. Dec. 1, 1800, he conduct-
ed the corps of reserye over the Splfigen,
into the Grisons, and entered the VeJte-
line. After the peace of Lun^yille, he
was, for a dme, French ambassador in
Denmark, from which he returned in
1803, and received the dtle of crand offi-
cer of the legion of honor. His zeal in
defending A£>reau prevented him from
being made a marshal of the empire
among the generals on whom this office
was first conferred, in 1804. In the cam-
paign of 1809, he passed the Piave with
the right wing of the viceroy, took Lay-
bach» and decided the victoiyof Wagram.
In recompense for bis services in that ac-
tion, the emperor created him marshal on
the field, adding, "I am principally in-
debted to you and my artillery guards for
this victory." In 1810, he took the com-
mand of Augereau's division in Catalonia,
and maintained his fame as a general, both
here and in the war against Russia, in
1812. The capitulation of the Prussians,
under York, who belonged to his army,
forced him to retreat upon Konigsberg,
Jan. 3, 1813. In May, 1813, he took
Merseburg, and was present in the battles
of Liitzen and Bautzen, and was defeated
byBlticheron the Katzbach (q.v.). At
Leipsic, Oct. 18, he commanded the 11th
division. He also d isdnguished himself at
Hanau. and in the blo<Kly campaign be-
tween the Mame and Seine. At the time
of Napoleon's catastrophe^ in 1814, he had
several audiences with Alexander, in fiivor
of the emperor. Macdonald was the first
to advise the abdication, afler which he
sent in his adherence to Louis XVIII.*
Durinff the hundred days (18151 he resid-
ed on nis estatesL After Napofeon's final
overthrow, be was made diancellor of the
legion of honor, and was directed to dis-

* Boarrieone deicribes, m a touching manner,
his flnai iaiarriew wiik Napoleon.

band the army of the Lcnre. He has

distinguished himself in the chamber of
peers not less by die iusmess and Uberal-
ity of his sentiments than by his fidelity to
the kins and constituti^. In 1825, he
attended Charles X to tne coronation at
Rheims, and afterwards visited England,
Scotiand and Ireland.

Mace. Clubs of various descriptions are
ibund amonff almost all savages, formed of
a hard and heavy vvood, some broad and
flat, others round, angular, long or short,
some plain and rude, others neatly carved.
From this simple implement, the mallet,
hammer of arms and mace originated,
which were generally used, of old, both
in Great Britain and on the continent
of Eiurope. The gradual progress of im-
provement having rendered armorimpene-
trable by edped weapons, some instiru-
ment of efiectual demolition became
necessary. An author on military affidrs,
of the sixteenth centuir, recommends a
leaden mallet, ^ve feet long. The maUet
viras wielded with both hands, and horse-
men had it hung by a thong or chain from
the pommel of the saddle. The hammer
of arms greatiy resembled a common ham-
mer. It differed from the mallet in being
square or a httle rounded or convex,
while one side of the mallet was square
and the other pointed or edged. The
mace, in its simplest form, is only an iron
club, short and strong. Its shape varied
among different nations and at different
times. One, still preserved, is of iron, two
feet one inch long, with a hollow handle,
and a head seven inches long, consisting
of seven iron leaves perpendicularly fixed
round a cylinder, and equidistant The
whole weighs three pounds nine ounces.
Two maces, said to have belonged to Ro-
land and Olivier de Roncevaux, famous
champions under Charlemagne, were pre-
servea in France towards die beginning
of the last century, and perhaps later,
consisting of a handle two feet long, to
which an iron ball was attached by a triple
chain. It appears that the ball was fre-
quentiy covered vrith iron spikes, and was
attached to the handle by a single chain.
Mr. Grose states, that similar implements
were long used by the trained bands of
London, under the name of morning stars.
(See BattU'Axtj and Arms.) At present,
the mace is used as an emblem of the
authority of officers of state (e. g. the
speaker of the English house- or com-
mons), before whom it is carried. It iti
made of the precious metals, or of copper,
gik, and oraainented with a crown, ^obe
andcnMB.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

178

MACE-MACERATION.

Macs ; the outw, fleabir and eoriaoeoiu
cover of the nutmeg. When the fruit is
SBthered, the mace is csrefutty eeparsted
mm the nut, dried in the sun, and after-
wards is packed in clieets of different
sizes, in which state it is obtained in com-
merce. (See JViitifM^.)

Macedonia (now Makdonia or Filiba
Vilajeti, a territoiy containing 15^250
.square miles, and 700,000 inhabitants);
the northern part of the peninsula in Eu-
rope, inhabited by the Greeks, a moun-
uunous and woody region, the riches of
which Consisted chiefly in mines of gold
and silver ; the coasts, however, produced
corn, wine, oil and fruits. It was sepa-
rated from Thessaly on the south by
the Olympus and the Cambunian moun-
tains (now Monte di Voluzzo) ; and on
the west, from Epirus, by the Pindiis (now
8tymphe). In regard to the eastern,
northern and nortn-westem boundaries,
we must disduffuish between the time be-
fore and after rhilip, the ftther of Alex-
ander. Before his time, all the country
b^ond the Strymon (Strumona), and even
the Macedonian peninsula fi:om Amphipo-
lis to Thessakmica, belonged to Thrace ;
and Ps(Hua, likewise, on the north. On the
north-west, towards Illyria, it was bound-
ed by lake Lycbnitis ( Acbrida). Philip
conquered this peninsula, all the country
to tlie river Nessus (Karasu^ and mount
Rhodope; also P»onia and lUyria, be-
yond lake Lycbnitis. Thus the widest
limits of Macedonia were from the iEge-
an sea to the Ionian, where the Drino
formed its boundary. The provinces of
Macedonia were, in gmeral, known by
name even before the time of Herodotus.
In the time of Philip, they were 19. s The
Romans divided the country into four dis-
tricts — ^the eastern on the Strymon and
Nessus (chief city, Amphipolis) ; the pen-
insula (capital, Thessalonica) ; the south-
em, including Thessaly (capital, Pella);
and the northern (chief city, Pelagpnia).
They made Illyria a separate country.
Macedonia was mhabited by two difterent
races— the Thracians, to whom belonged
the PflBonians and Pelagonians, and the
Dorians, to whom the Macedonians are
shown to have belonged by their language
and customs. Pliny speaks of 150 difter-
ent tribes, who dwelt here at an early pe-
riod ; but we have no particular accounts
of them. The Macedonians were a civi-
lized people long before the rest of the
Greeks, and were, in ftict, their instruc-
ters ; but the Greeks afterwards so far ex-
celled them, tliat they reimnled them as
horbeiians. They were divided into sev-

emi smaU states, which were i ncc aM m thr
at war with the Thracians and Illy rians^ tm
Philip and Alexander gave the ascenden-
cy to one of these states, and made it the
most powerful in the world. We have
no particular account of this state, but it is
known to have been a limited monarchy ;
to have been tributary, for a long time, to
the lUyrians, Thracians and Persians, and
to have been oUised to give up all its
harbors to the Athenians. The succes-
sion of its kinsB begins with the Hanclide
Caranus, but first tecomes important urith
the accession of Philip (q. v.). That
prince, taking advantage of the stren^
of the country and the wariike disposition
of its inhabitants, reduced Greece, which
was distracted by intestine broihL in the
battle of Chaeronea, B. C. 336. His bod,
Alexander (q. v.), subdued Asia, and by
an uninterrupted series of victories, for 10
successive years, made Macedonia, in a
short time, the mistress of half the workl.
After his death, this immense empire was
divided. MacedoDia received anew its
ancient limits, and, after several battles,
lost its dominion over Greece. The alli-
ance of Philip II with Carthage, during
the second Punic war, gave occasion to
this catastrophe. The Romans delayed
their revenge ft)r a season; but,Pmlip
having laid siege to Athens, the Atheniana
called the Romans to theur assistance ; the
latter declared war against Macedonia ;
Philip was compelled to sue for peace, to
surrender his vessels, to reduce his army
to 500 men, and defray the expenses of
the war. Perseus, the successor of Philip,
having taken up arms against Rome, was
totally defeated at Pydna by Paulus
iEmilius, B. C. 168, and the Romans took
possession of the country. Indignant at
their oppressions, the Macedonian nobility
and the whole nation rebelled under An-
driscus. But, after a long struggle, they
were overcome by Quintus Csecilius Mace-
donicus, the nobility were exiled, and the
country became a Roman province, B. C.
148. Macedonia now forms a part of
Turkey in Europe, and is inhabited by
Walachians, Turks, Greeks and Albani-
ans. The south-eastern part is under the
pacha of Saloniki; the northern, under
beys or agas, or forms free communitieB.
The capital, Saloniki, the ancient TheaBa*-
lonica, is a commercial town, and con-
tains 70,000 inhabitanta— See tte HuCo-
ry and AniiqmUu ^ tht Doric J2oee,
translated from the German of C. O.
Muller (Oxford, 1830).

Maceration (fiom mocero, to soften by^
water) consisli in the inftinoB of mah*

Digitized by VjOOQIC

MACERATION— MACHINERV.

]79

Bwnm in eold water, in order to extnct
their Tiitues. It diiflfera fiom dieeedon
only ae die latter operation admits me ap-
plioition of heat Maceiation ia prefeia-
Me in caoeo where heat would be injuii-
oua, aa where volatile and aromatic aub-
Btancee are uaed.
Machaoiv. (See JEicuk^fUu*)
BlAcniiTERT. The utility of machine-
ry, in ita application to manufkcturea, con-
tUgtis in the addition which it makes to
human power, the economy of human
time, and in the conversion of substances
apparendy worthless into valuable prod-
ucts. The forces derived from wind,
from water and from st^am are so many
additions to human power, and the total
inanimate force thus obtained in Great
Britain (including the commercial and
manu&cturinff) has been calculated, by
Dupiu, to be equivalent to that of
20^000,000 laborers. Expenments have
shown that the foroe necessaiy to move a
stone on the smoothed floor of its qiuuiy
is nearly two thirds of its weight ; on a
wooden floor, three fifths ; if soaped, one
sixth; upon roUers on the quarry floor,
ooe thirQr aecond ; on wood, one fortieth.
At each increaae of knowledge, and on
the contrivance of eveiy new tool, human
labor is abridged : the roan who contrived
rollere quintupled his power over brute
matter. The next use of machinery is
the economy of time, and this is too appa-
rent to require illustration, and may result
either from the increase of force, or from
the improvement in the contrivance of
toois^ 4>r from both united. Instances of
the production of valuable substances
fiom worthless materials are constandy
' occurring in all the arts ; and diough this
may appear to be merely the consequence
of scientific knowledge, yet it is evident
that science cannot exist, nor could its
lessons be made productive bv applica-
tion, vrithout machinery. Hn me history
of every science, we find the irnprove-
ments of its macfaineiy, the invenoon of
instruments, to constitute an important
part The chemift, the astronomer, the
physician, the husbandman, the painter,
the sculptor, is sucb only by the application
of machinery. Applied science m all its
forms, and the fine and useful arts, are
the triumphs of mind, indeed, but gained
throudb tne instrumentality of machineTy.
The mfiference between a tool and a ma-
chine is not capable of very precise dis-
tinction, nor is it necessary, m a popu-
lar examination of them, to make any
distinction. A fool is usually a more
simple machine, and generally used by

the hand ; a machine is a complex tool, a
collection of tools, and fi^quendy put In
action by inanimate force. All machines
are intended either to produce power, or
merely to transmit power and execute
work. Of the claas of mechanical agents
by which motion is transmitted, — the lever,
the pulley, the wedge,— it has been d^
monstrated that no power is sained by their
use, however combined. Whatever foree
is applied at one port, can only be exerted
at some other, diminished by friction and
other incidental causes ; and whatever is
gained in the rapidity of execution, is com-
pensated by the necessity of exerting addi-
tional force. These two principles should
be constandy borne in mind, and tpach
us to limit our attempts to things which
are possible. (See Hydraulicsy Hydrostatics^
Mechanics, Steam.)—!. AccuniuUding Pow-
er. When the work to be done requires
more force for its execution than con be
generated in the time necessary for its
completion, recouree must be had to some
mechanical method of preserving and
condensing a part of the power exerted
previously to the commencement of the
process. This is most fi^quentiy accom-

Elished by a fly-wheel, which is a wheel
aving a heavy rim, so that the greater
port of the weight is near the circumfe-
rence. It requires ^reat power, applied for
some time, 'to set this in rapid motion, and,
when moving with considerable velocity,
if its force is concentrated on a point, its
effects are exceedingly powerful. Anodi-
er method of accumulating power con-
sists in raising a weight, and then allowing
it to foil. A man, with a heavv hammer,
may strike repeated blows on the head of
a pile without any eflect; but a heavy
weight, raised by machinery to a greater
height, though die blow is less frequently
repeated, produces the desired eflect. —
2. Regvlaiing Power. Uniformity and
steadiness in the motion of the machinery
are essential both to its success and its
duration. The ^vemor, in the steam-
engine, is a contrivance for this purpose.
A vane or fly of little weight, but Jarce
surface, is also used. It revolves rapidly,
and soon acquires a uniform rate, which*
it cannot much exceed ; because any ad-
dition to its velocity produces a greater
addition to the resistance of the air. This
kind of fly is generally used in small

Eieces of mechanism, and, unlike the
eavy fly, it serves to destroy, instead of
to preserve, force. — 3. Increase qf Vdocity.
Operations requiring a trifling exertion of
force may become mtiguing by the rapidi-
ty of motion necessary, or a degree 'of

Digitized by VjOOQIC

180

MACHINEEY.

rapidity niay be desirable bevond the
power of muBcular action. Whenever
the work itself is light, it becomes neces-
sary to mcrease the velocity in order to
economize time. Thus twistinff the «ibres
of wool by the finffers would be a most
tedious operation. In the common spin-
ning-wheel, the velocity of the foot is
moderate, but, by a simple contrivance
that of the thread ia most rapid. A band,
passing round a large wheel, and then
round a small spindle, effects this change.
This contrivance is a common one in ma-
chinery. — 4. Diminution of Velocity, This
if commonly required for the purptose of
overcoming great resistances with small
power. Systems of pullevs afford an ex-
ample of this: in the smoke-jack, a great-
er velocity is produced than is required,
and it is theretore moderated by transmis-
sion through a number of wheels. — 5.
Spreading the Action of a Force exerted for
a fetv Jmnutes over a large Time* This
is one of the most common and useful
employments of machmery. The half
minute which we spend daily in winding
up our watches is an exertion of force
which, by the ai^ of a few wheels, is
spread over twenty-four hours. A great
number of automata, moved by spnngs,
may be classed under this division. —
6. Saving Tim/e in natural Operations,
The process of tanning connsts in com-
bining tl)e tanning prmciple with every
particle of the skin, which, oy the ordinary
process of soaking it in a solution of the
tanning matter, requires from six months
to two yptui^ By eoclosin^r the solution,
with the hide, in a close vessel, and ex-
hausting the air, the pores of tlie hide be-
ing deprived of air, exert a capillary at-
traction on the tan, which mav be aided
by pressure, so that the thickest hides
may be tanned in six weeks. The opera-
tion of bleaching afibnis another example.
— 7. Exerting Ihrces too hxrgefor hvman
Potoer, When the force of large bodies
of men or animals is applied, it becomes
difficult to concentmte it simultaneously
at a given poinL The power of steam,
air or water is employed to overcome i-e-
ststances which would require a great ex-
pense to surmount by animal labor. The
twisting of the largest cables, the rolling,
hammering and cutting of large masses
of iron, the draining of mines, require
enormous exertions of physical force, con-
tinued for considerable periods. Other
means are used when the force required
is great, and the space through which it is
to act is small. The hydraulic press can,
by the exertion of one man, produce a

prenure of 1500 atmo8pberB&--8. iSre*
cuting OperatitrnM too deUcatefor human
Touau The same power which twisls
the stoutest cable, and weaves the coarsesc
canvass, may be employed, to more ad-
vantage than human hiuids, in spinning
the gossamer thresd of the cotton, and en-
twinmg, with fairy fingers, the meshes of
the most delicate fabric.-~9. Regittering
Operations* Machineiv affords a sure
means of remedying tlie inattention of
human agents, by instruments, for in-
stance, for counting the strokes of an en-
gine, or the number of coins struck in a
press. The tell-tale, a piece of mechan-
ism connected with a clock in an apart-
ment to which a watchman has not access,
reveals whether he has neglected, at any
hour of his watch, to pull a string in token
of his vigilance. — 10. Ikanoimy of Materials,
The precision with which all operations
are executed by machinery, and the exact
similarity of the articles miide, produce a
degree of economy in the consumption of
the raw material which is sometimes of
great importance. In reducing the tnmk of
a tree to planks, the axe was formerly used,
with the loss of at least half the material.
The saw produces thin boards, with a loss
of not more than an eighth of the midXe'
tidl.'-n. The Identity of the BestUt. Noth-
ing is more remarkable than the perfect
similarity of things manu&ctured by the
same tool. If the top of a box is to be
made to fit over the lower part, it may be
done by gradually advancing the tool of
the sliding rest ; afler this adjustment, on
additional care is requisite in making a
thousand boxes. The same result ap-
pears in all the arts of printing: the im-
pressions from the same block, or tlie
same copperplate, have a nmilarity which
no labor of the hand could produce. — 13.
Accuracy of Vit ffbrk. The accuracy wirh
which machinery executes its work is,
perhaps, one of its most important advan-
tages. It would hardly be poeable for a
ver^ skilfiil workman, with files and pol-
ishmg substances, to form a perfect cylin-
der out of a piece of sfeel. This process,
by the aid of^the lathe and the sliding rest,
is the every day employment of hundreds
of workmen. On these two last advai>-
tages of machinery depends the system of
copying, by which pictures of the ori^al
may be multiplied, and thus almost un-
limited pains may be bestowed in pro-
ducing tne model, which shall cost 10,000
times the price of each individual speci-
men of its perfections. Operations of
copying take place, by printmff, by cast-
ing, by moulding, by stamping, by ptmch<*

Digitized by VjOOQIC

MACHINBR¥-MACK£AN.

101

ingi widi elongatkm. with alterod diraen*
rioii& A remarkable example of the aita
of copying lies before the eye of the read-
er in "theee pages. 1. They are copies
obtained by printing from stereotype
plates. 2. Those plates are copies od«
tained (by casting) from moulds formed of
plaster of Paris. 3. The mot Ids are
copies obtained by nouring the plaster, in
a liquid state, upon tne movable types. 4.
Tlie types are copies (by casting) from
moulds of copper, called matrices, 5.
The lower part of the matrices, bearing
the impressions of the letters or characters
are copies (by punching) from steel
punches, on which the same characters
exist in reliefl 6. The cavities in these
steel punches, as in the middle of tlie
letters a, 6, &,c^ are produced from other
steel punches in which those parts are in
relieL (For machinery, in political econ-
omy, see Labor-sannng Machines.)
Machinery, in poetry. (See Poetry.)
Mack, Charles, baron von ; an Austrian
general, bom in Franconia, in 1752. On
teaving college, his inclination led him to
enlist as a private in a regiment of dra-
goons, and nis good conduct soon obtain-
ed him the rank of a petty officer. In
the war with Turkey, he obtained a cap-
tain's commission. His spirit of enter-
prise procured him the favor of Laudou,
who recommended him to the emperor.
On the occurrence of war with France,
Mack was appointed quarter-master-gen-
eral of the army of the prince of Coburg,
and directed the operations of the cam-
paign of 1793. In 1797, he succeeded
the aroh-dukc Charles in the command of
the army of the Rhine. The following
year, he was sent to Naples, then invaded
by the French ; but, being beaten in the
field, and suspected of treason by the
Neapolitans, he fled to the French camp,
and was sent as a prisoner to Dijon. He
found means to justify his conduct in the
opinion of the emperor, who, in 1804,
constituted general Mack commander-in-
chief in the Tyrol, Dalmatia and Italy.
In 1805, Napoleon forced him to retreat
beyond the Danube, and to submit to the
famous capitulation of Ulm, by which
28,000 of the Aiistrians became prisoners.
Mack was permitted to go to Vienna,
where he was tried befove a militaiy tri-
bunal, and received the sentence of deadi
as a traitor to his country. His doom,
however, was commuted by the emperor
for imprisonment; and he was, after a
time, released, and died in obscurity, in
1828.
Macksait, Thomas, an eminent Amer^

VOL. VIII. 16

ican judge and revolutioiiaiy patriot, was
bom March 19, 1734, in the coun^ of
Chester, Pennsylvania. After an aoademie
and professional course of studies, he was
admitted aibattoniey, at the age of 21, and
soon obtained the appointment of deputy
attoro^-general in the county of Sussex.
In 17S7, he was admitted to the bar of tha
supreme court of Pennsylvania, and, \u
the same year, elected clerk of the house
of assembly. In October, 17^ he was
elected a member of the assembly for the
county of Newcastle, and was annually
returned for seventeen successive vearH,
although he retdded in Philadelphia fi>r
the last six years of that period. Wishing
to decline a re-election, he went to New-
castle in 1779, and stated his purpose.
A committee then waited upon him to
request that he would designate seven
persons in whom they might confide as
representatives of that county. He was
finally obliged to comply with this flatter-
ing request, and the ffentleinen whom he
named were chosen hy a large majority.
Mr. Mackean was sent to the general
congress of the colonies, which assembled
at New York in 1765. He, Lynch and
Otis formed the committee who framed
the address to the British house of
commons. In 1765, he was appointed
judge of the court of common pUtas aiMi
of tne orphan's court for the county of
Newcastle. In November term, 1766, and
Februarv term, 1766, he was one of tlie
bench that ordered the officers of the
court to proceed in their duties, as usual,
on unstamped paper. In 1771, judge
Mackean was apjjoinled collector of the
port of Newcastle. When measures were
adopted to assemble the general congress
of 1774, he took an active part in tiiem,
and was appointed a delegate from the
lower comities in Delaware. September
5, be took his seat in that body, and served
in it eight consecutive years and a half,
being annually re-elected until February,
1, 1783. He wos the only man who was,
M'ithout intermission, a memtier during
the whole period. He was president of
the body in 1781. Though a member of
congress till 1783, yet from July, 1777,
he held the office and executed the du-
ties of chief-justice of Pennsylvania. He
was particularly acdve and useful in pro-
moting the declaration of independeace,
which he mgned. A few days after that
event, be marehed, with a battalion, of
which he was colonel, to Perth Amboy
in New JerKy, to support general Wash-
ington, and behaved with gallantnr in tha
dangaroQB akimmahet which took pbaa

Digitized by VjOOQIC

MACREAN— MACKENZIE.

while he remained with tfce annj. He re-
turned to Delaware to prepare a conatt-
tutkm lor that state, which he drew up in
the coune of a night, and which was
unantmoualy adopted the next day by the
houae of asBembiy. In 1777, he acted as
preaident of the state of Delaware. At
that period, as he relates, he was hunted
like a fox, by the enemy ; he was cpm-
peiled to remove his family five times in a
tew months, and at length place<l them in
a little log house, on the banks of the
Susquehannah ; but tliey were soon
obliged to leave this retreat, on account of
the Indians. July 28, 1777, he received
the commission of chief-justice of Penn-
sylvania, which office he discharged 22
years, and gave striking proofs of ability,
impartiality and courage. Some of tliese
are related in the Biography of the Sign-
ers to the Declaration of Independeuce.
Judge Mackean was a member of the
couvendon of Pennsylvania that ratified the
constitution of the if. Suites, which he sup-
ported in a masterly speech. Asa de legate
to the Pennsylvania convention of 1 788, he
aided in formuig the present constitution
of Pennsylvania. In 1799, he was elect-
ed governor of that state, as a leader of
the democratic, contradistinguished fix>m
the federal party. As eovemor, he had
an arduous task to perform, and he was
equal to it, but he betrayed tlie party poli-
tician too often, in the course of his ad-
rainistratioD, which lasted for nine years,
the constitutional limit In 1803, it was
proposed to him to become a candidate
for the office of vice-president of the
U. Suites ; but he declined. In 1808, he
retired from public life, in which he had
been engaged for fifty years, and died
June 24, 1817, in his 84th year. He was
one of the fiithers of the republic, and in
this quality will be honored, aside from
the resentments which his proceedings as
a party politician eu gendered.

Mackenzie, Henry, a novelist and
miscellaneous wiiter, whom sir W. Scott,
in the dedication of Waverley, calls the
ScoUish Addison, was bom in Scotland, in
1745, and, after completing his prelimi-
nary education, became attorney in the
court of exchequer, in Scodand. He had
previously resided in London, for profes-
sional purposes, and, while tiiere, wrote
his first production, the Prince of Tunis,
a tragedy, which was favorably received.
His pasaon for elegant literature led him
to devote his leisure hours to polite stud-
ies, and naade him the friend and associ-
ate of the most eminent scholars of fklin-
hurgh. Id 1771, his Man of Feeling ap-

peared, and waa IbHowvd, a few feuv
after, bjr the Man of the World, AncC at a
later period, by Julia de Roubign^. Theaa
works are distinguished by sweemess and
beauty of style, tenderness and delieacr
of imannation, and deep pathos, which
renderml them extensively and deservedly
popular. A club of literary gendemen,
m Edinburgh, to which Mackenzie be-
longed, were accustomed to read essays
on various subjects, at their meetings,
and, at his suggestion, and under his di-
rection, a series of them was published
(from 1778), under the tide of the Mirror ;
he afterwards conducted a similar pub-
lication, under the tide of the Lounger,
to both of which he communicated a
large portion of the essays. In these,
united with his usual grace of style, he
displayed a power of wit and humor, in
rallying the follies of bis age, which we
do not discover in his uovels. It is wor-
thy of memory that, in his essays in the
Lounger, he was the first to bring Bums
forward to the pnliiic notice. To the
royal society of Edinburgh, and to the
Highland society, he made many valuable
communications, and was the author of
the^ report to the latter on the controversy
concerning the pNoems of Ossian, in which
he maintains their authenticity. This re-
port was pubhshed separately (1805), and
contains much valuable information rehi-
tive to Gaelic poetry. While thus ac-
tive in literary pursuits, Mackenzie dis-
charged, for a long time, the laborious
duties of controller of taxes for Scodand,
and was the delight and ornament of the
society which he frequented. He died at
a very advanced age, Jan. 14, 1831. (See
Scott's Lives of the Mwelists.)

Mackenzie, sir Alexander; originally
a Canadian merchant, engaged in the
north-west fur trade. In 1789, he deter-
mined to undertake a journey, with .the
view of penetniti ng to the coast of the
Northern Polar ocean. He »)t out from
fort Chippewyan, June .% crossed the
Slave lake, and descended the riv(>r which
now bears his name. July 12, his party
reached a spot where the river expended
into a lake, on which they pursued their
course till, by the rising of the tide, and
the presence of whales, it was obvious
that they were near the sea. They were
now nearly in the latitude at which
Heame found the Coppermine river to
fall into the sea, but about 30^ more in
longitude to the west By this journey,
Mr. Mackenzie added one more link to
the chain of discoveries in the North. He
reached fort Chippewyan, on his return.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

IfACKENZIB-BfACIUNTOBa

183

. , ?4» having been abiODt 103 dayi,

lo October, ITte, he undertook a still
more arduous journey across tlie conti-
nent, to the shore of the North Pacific
He encountered innumerable difficulties,
and suffered greatly, before he could ac-
complish his purpose ; but at length, July
12, 1793, he arrived on the coast of the
Pacific, near cape Menzies, in latitude 52^.
In 1801, having returned to England, he
published his Voyage through North
America to the Frozen and Pacific Oceans,
in 17d9 and 1703 (4to.) ; and, m the fol-
lowing year, he received, as a rewurd for
his exerdons, the honor of knighthood.

Mackcjizie's River ; a river of North
America. In llie first part of its course,
it flows N. E. to the Lake of the Hills,
under the name of tiie Unigahj or Peace
river; thence to Slave lake, it is called
•S7are river; it then takes the name of
Mackenzie's river, and flows 780 miles N/
into the Arctic sea ; Ion. 130° to 1J35° W. ;
laL 69P 14' N. Its whole course is about
2000 miles. {See precedirif^ article,)

Mackerel (scomjber). This is a tribe of
migratory fishes, which annually visit our
coast, and is among the most celebrated
of that class, for its numbers, and for the
greht use made of it in a salted state.
The European mackerel (S, scomber) was
early known as an article of food, and
was held in high esteem by the ancient
Romans, as fbnuing die celebrated sarwn,
a pickle, or sauce, of which tliey made
great use. This was prepared fronj seve-
ral different kinds of fishes, but tliat from
the mackerel was deemed by far the best.
The mackerel is easily taken, by a variety
of baits, and the capture always succeeds
best during a gentle breeze of wind, which
is lience termed a mackerel breeze by sea-
men. At such a time, the usual bait is a bit
of red cloth, a colored feadicr, &c. This
fish,' when alive, possesses great symme-
txy of form and brilliancy ofcolors, which
are much impaired by death, though not
wholly obliterated. It is said, that, in the
spring, their eyes are almost covered with
a white film, which grows in the winter,
and is regularly cast at the bcumuing of
summer, l)efbre which they are half blind.
There are several species of. mackerel on
the coast of the U. States, tlie most com-
mon of which the S. vernalisy closely re-
sembles the European species.

Mackutac. (See Mchxlimaekinac,)

Hackihtosb, sur James, eminent as a
jurist, a statesman, and a writer,— equally
distitiguislied fi>r his extensive learning,
his kige views, and his liberal principles
io kwy politics and phikMopby^— is do*

scended of an ancient Scotch fiunily, and
was bom in the parish of Dorish, coimty
of Inverness, Scodand, in 1765. After
studying at the school of Fortrose, in
Roes-shure, he was sent to King's college,.
Aberdeen, and spent three yeara at Edin-
burgh, chiefly in medical studies. He
received his medical decree ih 1787 ; but
his attention liad already been drawn to
general literature, historv, and moral, po-
litical and speculadve philosophy, and his
inclination soon led him to abandon his
profession. In 1789, we find him iu
London, where he published a pamphlet
on the regency quesdon, which, on ac
count of the sudden recovery of the king,
attracted little notice. A visit to the con-
tinent, at Uiat interesting period, contril>-
uted to excite his sympathies for the
French, and he published a reply to. the
celebrated Reflections of Burke, under tlie
. tide of VindicuB GaUica, or Defence of the
French Revolution (171^), a work which
laid the foundation of his fiime, and ac-
quired for him the firiendshin both of Fox
and his great antagonist. About this time,
Mr. Mackintosh entered himself as a stu-
dent of Lincoln's Inn, was soon called to
the bar by that society, and commenced
the practice of the law. Having obtained
permission, though not without much
difficulty, to deliver a coiuse of lectures
in the hall of Lincoln's Inn, on die law
of nations, he published his Introductory
Lecture, under the tide of a Discourse on
tlie Law of Nature and Nations. The
ability which it displayed obtained him a
large audience, including ' some of the
most distinguished men of the country.
On the trial of Peltier for a fibel against
Bonaparte (then first consul of France), in
which the prosecution was conducted by
Mr. Percival, the attorney-general (after-
wards first minister of suite), and Mr.
Abbot (die present lord Tenterden), the
defence was conducted by Mr. Mackin-
tosh, as sole counsel, ** in the most brilliant
speech," says sir W. Scott, *• ever made at
Jbor or in forum," which at once estab-
lished his reputation as an advocate and
an orator. The recordership of Bombay,
widi the digiiity of knighthood, was soon
after conferred on him, and, besides the
discharge of the duties of his oilfce, the
nine years which he spent in India were
marked by his exertions in the ameliora-
tion of tho criminal law, the foundation
of the Literary Society m Bombay, and
his valuable communications in the Asiatic
Register. While sitting on an admualty
cause, be declared that that court was
bound to decide by th« law of uatioQi^

Digitized by VjOOQIC

MACKINTOm— MACLAURm.

and not (as had been maintained by one
of the judges in England) by any direction
fiom the king or his ministerB. Soon
after his return to England, sir James was
returned a member of the house of com-
moos, for the county of Nairn, in Scotland
(1813), and has since sat for the borouffh
of Knaresborou^h, in Yorksiiire, in the
iufluence of lord Fitzwiiliam. When he
tint entered the house, he did not appear
equal to his reputation ; but, in the sue-
ceeditig sessions, he took his stand among
the first parliamentary speakers. To an
intimate acquaintance with tlie common
and civU law, he adds the rarer character
of a generous statesman ; and there are
few instances in which finer reasoning, or
deeper learning in the history of nations,
and the infiuence of human laws upon
the feelings, passions and interests of the
hiunan race, have been sustained, devel-
oped and enforced by a more manly and'
vigorous eloquence. His greatest efibrts
were directed to the amendment of the
rrioiinal code, which had been under-
taken by sir Samuel Romilly, and was
taken up as a solemn bequest by his friend
and representative. The escape of Napo-
leon from Elba, the congress of Laybach,
the Irish Catholics, tlie oppression of the
Greeks, Scotch juries, the uial of the
queen, are a few of the subjects pn which he
has exerted his eloquence. Sir James was,
for some time, lord rector of the university
of Scotland. He is also the author of a
celebrated review (Edinlnargh Rev,, vols.
27 and 36) of Stewart's Discourse on tlie
Progress of Metaphysical Science, and of
a Discourse on the Progress of Ethical
and Political Science, prefixed to the new
edition of the Encyciopfedia Britannica,
and published separately (4to., 1830).
Hia History of England is not a de-
tailed narrative of events, but a rapid, yet
clear, profound and philosophic view of
the state and progress of society, law,
government and civilization in England,
in which the lessons of experience, the
character of men and events, the cm>um-
Btances which have promoted, retarded,
modified the social and political improve-
ment of the English nation, are unfolded
and judged ^th the acuteness of a phi-
losopher and the vrisdom of a practical
statesman. His style is simple, clear,
gracefii? and elegant, and often rises to
eloquencQ, when the historian traces out
the growth of liberty, and the infiuence
of generous institutious. In July 1831, he
made an eloquent speech in fiivor of reform.
M ACKLiN, Charles, an actor and drama-
tiit of some celebrity, was bora in Ireland,

1690, and waa empkmd in Dublin, as a
barge-man, until his Slst year, When be
went to England, and ioined a company of
strolling comedians. In 1716, he appeared
as an actor in^the theatre at lancoln's-lnn-
fields. It was not, however, until 1741, that
he established his fimie as nn actor, by his
admirable performance of Shyiock, that be-
ing, indeed, the only character in which he
stood preeminent. He continued on tlie
stage until 1789, which long interval was
marked by the usual vicissitudes of the-
atrical life, rendered still greater by the
temper of the individual. During the last
years of his life, his understanding became
impaired, and in this state he died, July
11, 1797, at the age of 107. His Man of
the World, a comedy, discovers a keen
knowledge of life and manners, and ex-
poBes meanness, sycophancy, and politi-
cal servility, with con»derable skill. His
Love A-la-mode also possesses kindred
merit. Macklin was an entertaining com-
panion, although dictatorial, and very iras-
cible.

Mackniobt, James, a learned Scottish
divine, born in 1721, was educated at
Glasgow and Leyden, and, on his return,
was ordained minister of May bole, where
he remained IG years, and composed his
Harmony of tlie Gospels, and his New
Translation of the Epistles. In 1763, he
published hisTi'uth of the Gospel History.
In 1772, he became one of the ministers
of Edinburgh. Dr. Macknight employed
nearly 30 years in the execution of his
last and greatest work, on the apostolical
epistles — a New literal Translation from
the Gi'eek of all the Apostolical Episdes,
with Commentaries and Notes, philology
ical« critical, explanatory and practical
(1795, 4 vols., 4to.). He died in 1800.

Maclaurin, Colin ; a celebrated math-
ematician and philosopher, bom in Scot-
land, in 1698. He studied at Glasgow,
where he took the degree of M. A. at the
age of 15, and defended a thesis on the
Power of Gravitation. In 1717, he ob-
tained the mathematical chair in the
Marischal college at Aberdeen, and, two
years after, was chosen a fellow of the
royal societv. In 1725, he was elected
professor of mathematics at Edinburgh,
where his lectures contributed much to
raise the character of that university as a
school of science. A controversy with
bishop Berkeley led to the publication of
Maclaurin'^ great work, his Treatise on
Fluxions (Edinburgh, 1742, 2 vols., 4to.).
He died June 14»474J3. He was the au-
thor of a Treatise on Aleebra; an Account
of Bur Isaac Newton's Philraophioal Dm-

Digitized by

Gooole

'gl

HACLAURIN— HADAGASCAIL

185

coreries; pi^iere in the TraiuBctions of
the Royal Society ; and other works.

Macjphkeson, James; a Scottish writer,
distioguished in literary history for his
truislations or imitations of Gaehc poems,
nid to have been composed in ttie third
century. He was bom in 1738, and stud-^
ied at Aberdeen and Edinburgh. Having
published Fi-agmcnts of Ancient Poetry,
translated from tlie Gaelic or Erse lAn-
ffuage, a subscription was raised to enable
him to collect additional specimens of
national poetry. He produced, as the
fruit of his researches, Fingal, an ancient
Epic Poem, translated from the Gaelic
(17^ 4to.|; Temora, and other Poems
(1763, 4to.) ; professedly translated from
originals ;by Ossian, tlie son of Fingal, a
Gaelic prince of the third century, and his
contemporaries. (For an account of tho
controversy on this subject, see Osnan.)
From the evidence of the contending par-
ties, it may be concluded, tliat Macpher-
son's prose epics were founded on tradi-
tional narratives current among the High-
landers; but the date of the oldest of tiieir
lays is comparatively modern : and it is
now difficult, if not impossible, to ascer-
tain the precise extent of his obligations
to the Gaelic bards of former ages. Mr.
Macpberson was afterwards agent to the
nabob of Arcot, in consequence of which
he had a scat in the house of commons
from 1780 to 1790. He died in 1796,
and was interred in Westminster abbey.
He was also tlie autlior of a prose trans-
lation of Homer's Iliad, and of some other
works.

Macrabiotics (from /larpo^, long, and
0toij life) ; the science of prolonging life.
Hufeland called his well known work
Makrabwtik, or die Ait of prolonging hu-
man Life. (See LoTifftvity,)

M ACROBius, Aurclius Ambrosius Theo*
dosius ; a Ladn author, in the reign of the
emperor Thcodosius, to whom he offici-
ated as an officer of the wardrol)e, and
enjoyed a considerable share of the isnpe-
rial favor. The country of his birth, as
well as the religion which be professed,
are both uncertain, lie was the author
of a miscellaneous work, entitled ScUur-
no/to, curious for its criticisms, and valu-
able for the light it throws upon the
manners and customs of antiquity ; a
commentary on Cicero's Somnium Scipio-
ntf, in two books, valuable for the cxposi-
tion it affords of the doctrines of Py tliago^
ras, with respect to the harmony of the
spheres ; and a treatise De DifferenHis ei
Soeieiatilnu QradLaJtiniqut Verln. There
810 seyemt editions of this author's writ*

inga, the best of which are those of 1670,
Leyden, and 1774, Leipsic He is sup-
posed to have died about the year 490.

Mapaoascar ; an island of Africa, on
the eastern coast, separated fix>m the con-
tinent by the channel of Mozambique,
which is about 270 miles across. It ex-
tends from ir 57' to 25° 40^ S. lat, and
from 43° 33^ to .W 25^ E. Ion., and is
about 900 miles long, and from 120 to 300
broad ; square miles, about 220,000 ; pop-
ulation, uncertain ; estimated by Flacourt
at 1,600,000 ; by Rondouz, at 3,000,000 ;
by Rochon, at 4,000,000. It is one of the
largest islands in the world, and is re-
markable for its fertility. The surface
is gready diversified, being intersected,
throughout its whole length, by a chain
of lofty mountains, the highest summits
of which are said to be about 11,000 feet
above the sea. The scenery of these
mountains is oflen crand and picturesque.
The forests abound in beautiful trees, as
palms, ebony, wood for dyeing, bamboos
of enormous size, orange and lemon trees.
The botany of the island is interesdng ;
iron mines abound in various parts ; other
minerals are found; but the mineralogv
of the island has been but litde explored*
The country is well watered by numerous
streams, mostly small, which descend
from the mountains. In this genial cli-
mate, they produce a luxuriant fertility.
Rice is the staple food of the inhabitants.
Other productions are potatoes, sugar,
silk, &c. The sheep produce fine wool.
The cocoa-nut, banana, &c., flourish.
The inhabitants are composed of two dis-
tinct races, the Arabs or descendants of
foreign colonists, and the Negroes or
original inhabitants of the island. The
character of the inhabitants diffi;rs much
in the different parts of the island, and the
accounts of writers are veiy discordant on
this subject. But, in reality, too litde is
known of the greater part of the island, to
afford grounds for any safe opinions.
The name and position of this island
were first made known to Europeans by
Mareo Polo, in die thirteenth century,
although .it had been known to tlie Arabs
for several centuries. It was visited by
the Portuguese in the beginning of the
sixteenth century. The French made at^.
tempts to found colonies there in the
middle of the seventeenth century, but
abandoned the island afler manv struggles
v^idi die natives. In 1745, they made
new attempts, but without much success.
In 1814, it was claimed by England as a
dependency of Mauritius, which had been
ceded to her by Fraoccj «iud suiue eettle-

Digitized by VjOOQIC

186

MADAOAflCAR— MADDER.

mentiwwB esiablidied. One of die nft-
tive kings of the interior, who had ehown
himself eager to procure a knowledge of
European aits for his subjects^ consented,
in 1»W, to relinquish the sbve-trede, on
condition that ten Madegassees should be
sent to England, and ten to Mauritius, for
education. Those sent to England were
, placed under the care of the Loudon
missionary society, who sent miaaionaries
and mechanics to Madagascar. In 1826^
1700 children were taught in the mission-
ary schools, and parts of the Scripture
have since been translated into the native
language. This king died in 1898, and we
do not Imow what has been the disposi-
tion of the new ruler. — See Rochon, Vcy-
age h Madagaacar; Flacourt, Higtoin de
Madagascar ; Copland, Hi^ory of MadU'
goioar (1822).

Madame, in France ; the title of the
ynfe of the king's brother, of the sister of
the king's fiither, or the sister of the king's
mother, or of the FUle de Ihmce (the
daughter of the king or of the dauphin,
deceased during the life of the sovereign).
— Mesdames de France ; the common title
of the daughters of the French kings. —
MademoiseUe ; a title of honor of the daugh-
ters of the king's brothers, the daughters
of the king's father's brothera, or the
daughters of the king's mother's brothers.
In 1734, it was ordered that it should be

Oonly to the first princess of the

Madder (ruJbia) ; a genus of plants
that has given its name to an extensive
fiimily, including, among others, the genus
galium or hedatrawy which it closely re-
sembles in habit, but differs in the fruit,
which consists of two globular corneous
berries. Fifleen species are known, of
which only one inhabits the U. States,
viz. the IL hrownei, which grows in
Georgia, Florida, and the mountains of
Jamaica. Th^y are chiefly herbaceous,
with rough branching stems, simple leaves
arranged in whorls of four or six, and
small flowers, which are usually disposed
.in terminal panicles. JR. fendort/m, or
dyer's mmider, is by far the most impor-
tant of the genus, on account of the fiue
scariet color afforded by the roots ; and,
indeed, this substance is essential to dyers
and calico-printers, and their manufac-
tures could not be carried on without it.
Ip conseauence, it has become an impor-
tant article of commerce, and is imported
into Britain from Holland to a very great
extant. Though cultivated in France for
a century and a half, the supply is yet
inadequate to the consumption in toat

Gomitvy, and it » Ittgoly imported from
the Levant as well as fifom Holland.
Since the extension of manu&ctures in
the U. Stales, it has become an object of
importance to introduce the culture of
madder, and the subject has engaged the
attention of several intelligent and public-
spirited individuals. The plant grows
wild in manv parts of the soutn of Europe.
The root is perennial, long, creeping,
about as large as a quiil, and red botn
without and within; from it arise sev-
eral trailing, quadrangular stems, rougfti,
branching, and two or three feet in lengm ;
the leaves are oblong-oval, and prickly
on the margin and mid-rib; the flowers
are yellow and small, and are di^>osed in
a panicle, at the extremity of the branches,
and in the axils of the superior leaves ;
they make their appearance in June and
July, and are succeeded by blackish ber-
ries. The most approved method of cu^
ture is from seed, and where this practice i*
pursued, certain precautions are requisite.
As the madder of hot climates affordn
more coloring matter,, as well as a deepei
tuit, it is b^ for those who live in a
northern region to import the seed fnnn
the south. Again, when the seed is too
much dried, it may remain in the ground
two or three years before it will germinate.
On tliis account, it should be kept in a
bed of moistened earth or sand, whenever
there is any delay in sowing iL A light,
rich and deep soil is the most suitable,
and it should be ploughed to the depth
of two feet The time of sowing is in
February, or the beginning